History and Its Influence on British 17th Century

2. Introduction History and Its Influence on British 17th century literature By regarding British' literary works up to the 17th century, one can recognize many parallels to the history and culture of that time. In my following term paper I am though going to Investigate where the parallels between history, culture and literature are. I will do so by using chosen passages from British literary texts from the Renaissance and Restoration Literature. Therefore I will first define the characteristics of both epochs.Secondly I will compare the plots of the chosen assuages to the historical and cultural context and accentuate the similarities. As I believe, these similarities between literatures, cultural and historical context can be found in any literary work. 3. Renaissance Literature The term Renaissance as an epoch describes the translation from medieval times to the modern ages which took place between 1485 and 1603 In England. It meaner the rebirth of ancient values and ideals in pa inting, architecture, science, philosophy and literature.Due to the invention of the printing press by Gutenberg, which was established in England by the help of William Cotton in 1474, authors got the chance o write in vernacular language. Since there were from then on more people who could read and understand the texts, Renaissance knowledge was accessible for the folks (CB. League) The early Renaissance in England has strongly been influenced from Italy where it begun about 200 years earlier and from the medieval concept of courtly love.Courtly love meant the poetry by errant knights, often a king's third son who traveled around the countryside to get a place to work. The only chance for those errant knights to gain their social status back was to get a rich lord's daughter, so any minnesinger poems were written by them. The major contents of those poems were the beauty and elusiveness of the lady. The knights had to sublimate their sexual desires and show real love to succeed an d climb the â€Å"gradation amoral†, the love-ladder from â€Å"Eros†, sex to â€Å"agape†, the pure love without taking physical Interaction.During the Elizabethan Age, from 1558 until 1603, the ideal of a woman sight was formed and every woman who was described In a poem was described with the terms of that ideal sight in comparison with nature. Bartholomew Griffin's Fiddles for example contents all the characteristics of Renaissance poetry as one can see In the following excerpt (Sonnet 39): My Lady's hair is threads of beaten gold; Her front the purest crystal eye hath seen: Her eyes the brightest stars the heavens hold; Her cheeks, red roses, such as sell have been.Her pretty lips, of red vermilion dye; Her hand of ivory, the purest white; Her breast displays two silver fountains bright. The spheres, her voice; her grace, the Graces three; Her body is the saint that I adore; Her smiles and favors sweet as honey be. But ah, the worst and last is yet behind: For of a griffin she doth bear the mind ! In this poem, the â€Å"Blazon†, the description of the Lady beauty from head to toe is accentuated. In this poem one can also recognize the concept of kilowatts, which meaner that an outer beauty meaner a good soul, while an ugly appearance is accompanied to a bad soul.That concept is another typical characteristic for the English renaissance literature and one can find it in this poem since there is no description of the lady behavior but her outer appearance. 4. Restoration Literature The literary epoch of the Restoration lasted from 1660 until 1688/89. The most common forms of Restoration literature were satires to criticism the noble and religious texts in prose or verse. It triggered â€Å"the official break in literary culture caused by censorship and radically moralist standards under Cromwell Puritan regime† (CB.English literature). One example for a religious text is â€Å"Paradise lost†, by John Milton. Paradi se lost is an epic poem often books, written in blank verse from 1640 until 1642. Milton transfers Greek epic to a biblical context, though Paradise Lost contains the plot of the first pages of Genesis, how Adam and Eve were created ND how they lost Paradise, â€Å"expanded into a very long, detailed, narrative poem. † (New Arts Library). Paradise lost can be interpreted in two possible ways but not both at the same time.The first possibility is to interpret it as a rewrite of the Bible â€Å"as it might have been written with the benefit of a humanist English education† (Alexander 148). The other possibility is to interpret it in political context as a critique on the upcoming civil war and â€Å"The Eleven Years Tyranny' by Charles I who reigned without parliament for eleven years after his father, James I died in 625. One Example of a satire is â€Å"A Satyr on Charles II†, by John Willow, Earl of Rochester, which was delivered to the King by accident instea d of one the King had actually ordered. CB. Lynch) The Satyr is written in verse and consists of three stanzas. In the first stanza, Charles II is described as a King who lacks ambition â€Å"Him no ambition moves to get renown† but still reigns better than Louis XIV â€Å"Like the French fool that wanders up and down starving his people† and that he is good for England. The second stanza describes Charles Sis's genitals â€Å"His scepter and his prick re of a length† and that he lets his penis reign â€Å"thy prick will govern thee†, which meaner that he takes his mistresses as political consultants.The last stanza says that if Charles Sis's sexual power would decline, his political power would decline as well, because of the political power of his mistresses and in the last two lines Rochester says that he hates all monarchs â€Å"All monarchs I hate, and the thrones they sit on†. 5. Conclusion By regarding any literary text from epochs up to the 17th century, one can always find parallels to cultural or historical terms. This is obvious since the authors would not often more than one possibility to interpret literary works and sometimes it is also difficult to understand how the epoch's literary features developed.Considering Renaissance literature, it is not easy to say today, why the woman's role in those times was that high. It is obvious, that poets tried to improve their social status by winning a noble man's daughter by writing blazon poems about her. Another reason for the women's high position could still be worship of the Virgin Mary or Queen Elizabeth in those times. By regarding the Blazon, one also has the question of the chicken and the egg, since we only know that Queen Elizabeth was always described and painted in the ideal of beauty in the early Renaissance England.What we do not know is whether that ideal of beauty was formed because of her sight or whether she was only described and painted in a way to fu lfill the ideal. In reflection on paradise lost, one either has the opportunity to interpret it on historical grounds or on humanist religious base. Both ways are connected to history or culture, so that in paradise lost, one definitely has literature which leads to one of the two contexts. The satires of Restoration literature are almost all critiques on those time's politics, so that the connection to history is obvious.All three examples for literary epochs that I have chosen have a relative to history or culture, but since we do not always know the development of culture or literary features, we cannot know how it is actually related. There also is the fact, that these are only three examples of thousands of literary works, though it is far too less to prove a general tendency. As a conclusion I can so only make out that every literary work must contain at least some cultural features, since every human being and so very author is influenced by it. 6. Works cited Alexander, Mich ael.

Reporting Practices and Ethics Essay

The four elements of financial management are planning, controlling, organizing and directing, and decision making. These four elements will be defined and explained in this paper. Also emphasized will be the accepted accounting principles and the general financial ethical standards. Examples of ethical standards of conduct and financial reporting practices will be explored and notated in this paper as well. All of these points are important in the accounting practice of health care management to help the organizations run smoothly and to be financially stable. Four Elements of Financial Management Planning lets a health care organization set goals and guidelines to make sure their office is a success and that all accomplishments are met. Controlling is ensuring that all areas within the healthcare organization are following goals and guidelines set and gives the organization the opportunity to prepare for any issues that may arise. Organizing and directing ensures that the health care organization is working to its potential and allows them to work on a day to day basis and fix any issues that may be looming. Lastly, decision making works off all of the other elements (planning, controlling, organizing and directing) by collecting information and making the final decisions on how the financial management will work. General Accepted Accounting Principles â€Å"The common set of accounting principles, standards and procedures that companies use to compile their financial statements. GAAP are a combination of authoritative standards (set by policy boards) and simply the commonly accepted ways of recording and reporting accounting information† (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles , n.d.). Even with GAAP being a set of  standards, there are still companies that will finagle numbers on their financial statements, so their financial statements will have to be scrutinized tremendously. General Financial Ethical Standards â€Å"Ethical standards are determined largely by professional accounting and finance organizations and the Financial Accounting Standards Board. Small-business owners who plan to perform their own accounting services or hire accountants should be aware of accounting principles and general financial ethical standards so they can maintain a positive reputation for their businesses† (Morley, n.d.). Competence is one of the ethical standards that is key for a financial officer to uphold in an organization. Financial managers should follow the GAAP and stay up to date with its guidelines. They should also uphold honesty and integrity. Examples of Ethical Standards of Conduct Ethical standards of conduct is a set of standards that each company sets for themselves. There is no consistent standards of conduct for a business, but they must include, promoting values, trust, good behavior, fairness, and kindness. They are not easily enforceable and are always open to interpretation. For example, men and women should be treated equally or treat the patient with respect. Nightingale Home Healthcare code of ethics are direct and descriptive. Some of their ethical standards of conduct are listed as: â€Å"all business conduct should be well above the minimum standards required by the law, each employee is responsible for the consequences of his or her actions, each employee must be the guardian of Nightingale’s ethics, leaders at Nightingale have extra responsibility of setting an example by their personal performance and an attitude that conveys Nightingales ethical values, our first responsibility is to the patient and patient’s families that we p rovide our services† (Corporate Social Responsibility-Code of Ethics , n.d.). There are numerous points of their code of ethics but they serve a purpose and that purpose to make sure their company is ran efficiently and respectfully. Financial Reporting Practices â€Å"A distinguishing characteristic of high performance organizations is a strong internal control structure-controls that ensure patient care,  compliance with regulations, internal efficiencies, and financial reporting. It is controls on financial reporting that are receiving a great deal of attention under a new law, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. Public companies are now required by law to document controls over financial reporting, in order to fully address exposures and the effectiveness of current controls. Though many healthcare organizations are not directly affected by the law, regulatory agencies could follow suit and require similar compliance. In fact, several states have introduced bills that require nonprofit organizations to adhere to portions of the act. This article provides a guide for organizations desiring to stay ahead of the curve† (Godwin & Mueller, 2005). Significance The significance of these examples are that there are ethics that need to be followed within any organization but in a healthcare organization it is extremely important because you handle patients and to ensure the comfort of these patients, a code of ethics need to be enforced for the organization. It is also important to ensure that financial reporting is done, so all finances stay up to date on a legal manner. It helps to show revenue, liability, and expenses and helps control the business effectively. References Corporate Social Responsibility-Code of Ethics . (n.d.). Retrieved from Nightingale Home Healthcare : http://www.homecareforyou.com/about/code.html Generally Accepted Accounting Principles . (n.d.). Retrieved from Investopedia : http://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gaap.asp Godwin, N., & Mueller, J. (2005). Fiancial Reporting Practices: A Comprehensive Evaluation. School of Accountancy, Auburn University. Morley, M. (n.d.). Accounting Principles and General Financial Ethical Standards . Retrieved from Small Business Chronicle: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/accounting-principles- general-financial-ethical-standards-36283.html

Theology PAper

Theological Discernment and Cultural Exegesis of the Movie Life Is Beautiful Life Is Beautiful (1998) is one of the most memorable and original movies I have ever seen. It is not surprising for me, that the movie received so many great awards such as the grand prize at Cannes Film Festival and three Academy Awards, including Best Foreign Language Film and others. The central Idea of the movie Is to give people the understanding that it does not matter how much death, evil, and ugliness happens in the world there is always hope and good.To understand that goodness, truth, and tatty of the relationships and human life finally triumph at the end despite of evil that Is made by Nazi military. After watching this movie 4 years ago, It really did make me think very much about life itself. At that time I was very concerned about my future and career opportunities, but finally I realized that nothing is more important than love and close relationships with people I love. This is the main rea son why after seeing the name of the movie In the list, I knew It will be my first and the only choice of the movie would Like to write about.The movie Itself portrays us a really rethinking story about a family love and their relationships with each other. It is a story of the main character – Guide, his son -Joshua and wife – Dora not in favor of Nazi troops who were continuously sentencing Jewish people to death only because of their race during the World War II. I could say that the two main characters of this small family, Guide and Dora, are showing a really strong love to each other that makes them able not only serve each other but also sacrifices for each other's sake of good. For me this Is like two movies in one.All this story Is presented Like two efferent lives from beautiful beginning to an unexpected suffering story that make us realize how easily a life can change, in particular when you least expect it. The first part of the movie presents us incredibl y beautiful days where the plot takes is to the small village of Italy filled with an inspiring love story from the very first minutes when two extremely different people saw each other. Guide was as a Jew waiter who came there to his uncle with a dream to open his own book store, and suddenly by accident met an engaged Italian girl.Unfortunately, after 5 years living happily gather, everything falls apart and changes. A breathtaking love story turns into to a horrible exile during the World War II where Jewish people are taken to the concentration camps for work and death. The movie itself is portrayed in a very interesting structure. From the very first sight we realize that it should be extremely heartbreaking due to the fact that such hard topic as an exile and death of innocent people Is unquestionably accepted as a very cruel thing to do to the whole community. N the contrary, the movie presents exile In a way of game and fun. Guide here is a father who does his best to keep h is son from finding out the wicked truth about their situation in the camp. It is his primary goal to keep the son safe, while he Is trying to find out the way how to release his family from the camp and at the same time keeping German troops from finding this out. For his son, Joshua, the camp is presented as a competition where he is supposed to pursue all the given instructions.If he does that, he will get more points and win the main prize – tank. I OFF protection of a son. For us it can be an example of Guide commitment to his family in very Christian way, because he is following Gods' words from the Bible. He is doing exactly what he calls husbands and fathers to do – to take responsibility for their families: â€Å"Behold, children are a heritage from the Lord, the fruit of the womb a reward. Like arrows in the hand of a warrior are the children of one's youth.Blessed is the man who fills his quiver with them! † (Psalm 127:3-5) Yes, the movie is talking a bout the war of good and evil, but for me Guide and his dedication to his family shows that it also presents us the beauty of human spirit, faithfulness and soul. Guide is like a real Christian serving his family, in the movie itself an uncle Eloise once told Guide that mire's serving. You're not a servant. Serving is a supreme art. God is the first servant. God serves men but he's not a servant to men. Guide in the movie becomes the best example of a servant, no matter that he serves his family in his own way, he does not become humble, but rather he is perceived as a hero who is doing everything he can to save from harm his family. Guide served both, his son and a wife when he was going to look for Dora and in some moments of the movie emending her that both of them are still alive. It is Just as the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many. † (Matt. 20:28).He is doing this without event thinking he is a servant; he is lik e Jesus who served people for their good, with thinking to get something in return. Guide is not the only one in the movie who shows his love, serves, and sacrifices for his family. His wife, Dora does it as well, as a real Christian. From the very begging to the very end she is doing what she can to show love and dedication to her family members. She as a woman from a prominent Italian family would have never had to go to such a horrifying place as a concentration camp.Unfortunately, due to the fact that her husband and son were Jews and had to be exiled, she showed her bravery and dedication. Right after the moment she found out that her Jewish husband and son have been taken by German soldiers, she went to the train station and tried to convince the soldiers that they have made a mistake. Sadly, an officer denied it of being a mistake and insisted her; she doesn't belong there and has to go home. Dora id not do that, she demanded to be put on the train with the other people and b e taken to the concentration camp.Despite the fact that she was Italian, came from a very good family, she with no doubts has chosen to identify herself with Jews, the people who have been condemned. She gave up her own life and showed pure love and devotion to her family. Finally, in the end of the movie we are made to realize how beautiful this father-son game really is. Despite its setting in the context of death and cruelty Guide is able to inspire us for faith and believe in good. A father to only serves his son from the very first second there comes harm to him, but also shows his devotion by sacrificing his own life in order to keep both, his wife and son safe.He is doing everything he can to save both of them as a true, loving father and husband would do. Guide offers a life of imagination to his son that is beautiful, even though he is very exhausted and oppressed, since he was working hard during the day in the camp. According to Russell B. Ramsey (n. D. ) Guide reflects J esus' words in the Bible, â€Å"Greater love has no man than this, that he lay down his life for his friends On. 5:13). † He laid down for his family and was very strong psychologically not to joke and fun instead of going to panic.This was a very courageous thing to do, and we can see how strong a man can be in situations where he has to protect his own family. To sum up, the movie is very unique, because of the authors' ability to unite both, comedy and tragedy to one movie that is in general very hard to do. From the funny beginning it shifts to a tough story in a concentration camp while still maintaining elements of fun. Guide gives his son the gift loving and not knowing what is happening in reality. He does not mention the real truth about the camp and evil that surrounds them there.

Reflective account Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reflective account - Essay Example He had been admitted a week earlier due to shortness in breath, pain in the upper back, and had been generally unwell. I carried on with dressing the wound on his leg and followed the required procedure. The right procedure has to be followed so as to reduce or minimise the risk of infection from harmful micro-organisms. It was during the redressing that I realised the patient was in pain. Upon asking if he felt any discomfort, he confirmed my suspicions. Upon further enquiry, he said that he did not want to make any fuss. I later did what was best for him. I gave him some morphine that would have to be taken orally. Thought Having done the procedure before, I thought that it would be easy and fast. The thoughts I had were directed to the patient. I believed he was in some kind of discomfort due to lack of a pain relief drug. This made me want to find out if my fears would be confirmed. As he confirmed them, it did not feel right and upon further query, he said the reason he did not say anything was to avoid making a fuss. The introduction of morphine into his system enabled me to continue dressing the wound. This was after thirty minutes since it was the right amount of time required for the pain relief drug to kick in. After that, he ascertained that he no longer felt the pain. He was therefore, very appreciative. Feeling After finding out the suffering the man was going through, especially after a week full of pain, I felt sympathy for him. The fact that he was willing to take the pain while I was dressing him told me a lot about the man he was. It was hard to imagine why he would not tell me about the pain. After giving him the morphine and relieving him of the pain, I felt relieved. I felt that I had let him down and I owed him the professional courtesy of relieving him of the pain that he felt throughout the procedure. The feeling of helplessness overwhelmed me when I learnt of his cancer at the beginning of our meeting. Professional courtesy is the most important thing in any occupation (Draper & Tennenhouse 2011). Evaluation Things went on smoothly and perfectly after the introduction of the pain relieving drug. He confirmed to me while dressing his wound later that he could no longer feel the pain he was earlier on subjected to. I had my professional judgement to thank for that piece of thinking. I could not go against my ethics as a nurse to ignore the pain he felt. Furthermore, it was my job as a nurse to relieve any discomfort that a patient faces. It was important for both our sakes to have the introduction of the pain relief drug. Analysis Using hospital guidelines and protocol, I realised that it was my job to do what I did. This by having the patient confide in me, and the steps I took to help him out. It is the nurse’s duty to know of the right protocols and hospital guidelines to follow in such cases. This is for the sake of the patient, the nurse involved, and the hospital the patient is being kept in. In the eve nt that they do not realize this, the hospital runs the risk of getting a bad reputation for not taking their patients feelings into account while in their sick state (D’Antonio 2010). Reframe If I find myself in a position similar to the one I was in, I would ensure that I make it easier to help a patient in need. I will be quick at it too. I would do that by confirming with the patient well before hand to

Ludwig Van Beethovens life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ludwig Van Beethovens life - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that various figures will influence our lives in different ways and dimensions. A renowned figure in the creative arts can influence a scientist’s life, as well as a fictional character, can influence the life of a scientist. In this case, the people influenced achieve the success that was unfathomed since they create a purpose and meaning in their lives using their influencer’s life, views, ideas, and philosophies. Importantly, figures whose stories are full of triumph over tragedies influence people due to the achievements that these figures accomplished despite the hindrances that may have prevented their success. Ludwig Van Beethoven exemplified brilliancy and intellect, which exerted immense influence that remains to date. In effect, his determination and achievements, regardless of the factors that inhibited his accomplishments, signify the important role he played in influencing my life as a student who is an aspiring e ngineer. Beethoven’s compositions are played in concerts, operas, and other entertainment venues although a few people know the challenges that Beethoven underwent in order to make these compositions. First, he was born in a family of seven children with only three of the children surviving to adulthood. The children succumbed from hereditary diseases that affected the family, which means that the probability of Beethoven suffering from a similar fate was high.

What was the main theme of chapter six in the Douglas narrative Why Assignment

What was the main theme of chapter six in the Douglas narrative Why was it important - Assignment Example The treatment of slaves in Baltimore town is humane as compared to the rural masters who mistreat their servants. The theme of knowledge and empowerment is important because it enables one to have the freedom the mind and feel respected. For instance, it is evident when Mrs. Auld insists to Douglas that education helps in freeing the mind. Initially, Mrs. Auld had not owned a slave and so she thinks that it is bad not to educate them on the basics. She indicates that education is the first step towards attaining physical and mental freedom (Douglass 30). The chapter ends with Douglas illustrating the fury over the mistreatment of Mary, who is a slave in the neighboring house. Although slavery is the prevalent theme, Douglas discovers that it is influenced by their lack of knowledge. It emerges that attaining education helps in understanding that slavery is unaccepted and people should avoid it. The whites take advantage of their slaves by owning them as property because they cannot fight for their

Cultural challenges regarding Volvo entering China Essay

Cultural challenges regarding Volvo entering China - Essay Example xvi). The country’s culture will determine how the firm will respond to strategic issues, and how these issues are interpreted (Becker, 2000, p. 90). Sweden verses China – the Cultural Challenges Hofstede’s cultural dimensions will be used as a framework to explain the cultural challenges between Sweden and China. These dimensions are widely used in different contexts, where there is going to a cross-cultural challenge, and different countries will fall within these dimensions (Steenkamp, 1999). Hofstede proposed that culture has different dimensions, and that these dimensions must be taken into account whenever one is looking at cross-cultural relationships. Volvo is based in Sweden, which obviously is a Western country. China is obvioiusly an Eastern country. As such, there is bound to be many cultural challenges which might arise when these two countries merge. One of Hofstede’s dimensions is the concept that some countries are individualistic, while ot her countries are collectivist. Basically, the individualist countries are an â€Å"I† countries – the individuals are paramount, and everybody is expected to be able to go it alone. The collectivist countries, on the other hand, see that everybody is a part of a group. This group might be a family, it might be a clan, or it might be an organization. At any rate, the members of the group, if the country is a collectivist country, show unfailing loyalty to that group (Hofstede, 1984, p. 84). In individualistic cultures, individual concerns are put ahead of group concerns; in collectivist countries, this is just the opposite (Steenkamp, 1999, p. 59). What the research shows is that China is a collectivist country – they score low on the scale for individualism, while Sweden scores high on this scale. What this means is that there is bound to be culture clashes, as the Chinese workers will have loyalty to the people inside their group – research shows that, within the collectivist cultures, the members of a group are willing to share with other members of that group, and are less willing to share with members who are not in that group (Ardchivilli et al., 2006). The Chinese workers therefore might decide to bond together and not share information with the Swedish workers, and this might be the same with the management. On the other hand, the workers and management in Sweden might be reluctant to share with anybody (Ardchivilli, 2006). Another dimension is power distance. The power distance concept has to do with hierarchies. Hierarchies may either be rigid or fluid, respected or not respected. It depends on if the country has a large power distance or a small power distance. The rigid hierarchies are often found in countries that have a large power distance. The hierarchies in these countries are in place, and they are not questioned. Therefore, the members of the hierarchies know their place in the hierarchy, and this is something tha t is accepted by the members of these groups. If there is a power inequality, this does not have to be explained. However, in the case of countries with a smaller power distance, this is not the case. If there are power inequalities within these groups, there needs to an explanation for the power inequalities. Moreover, the members of the hierarchy do not accept their fate – they strive for more equality. This means that, while they might respect the hierarchy, if they are not

Paraphrasing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 37

Paraphrasing - Essay Example Almost all organizations engage in this type of operation in a bid to refine their processes. Task-focussed approach involves consultation that is always accompanied with directives. A case in point is in the universities where the senate, after consulting various stakeholders, may reach a decision and then communicate it to the university fraternity through memos, instructions, or emails. The third approach is charismatic transformation and is commonly applied in organizations such as banks. It is characterised by directed business process and re-engineering as its success is anchored on its functionality that often a times calls for the restructuring of processes. Multinational enterprises on the other hand find themselves operating in environments that are constantly changing. This means that they have to be flexible enough to alter their operations in a frequency which marches the level of their dynamic environment. In such a situation, facilitated and directed approaches may var y to also include aspects of fine tuning and corporate transformation. This in turn gives rise to turnaround transformation that is characterised by both directive style and a bit of coercion. The best case to illustrate this is Toyota’s lean Just-In-Time manufacturing technique which seeks to eliminate waste during the production process. Different factors account to organizational failure during change management. Among the prime factors is the absence of effective communication. Communication of the change process to the stakeholders is a critical ingredient in winning their commitment to a cause. The leader thus has the responsibility to let every interested party understand why the change is important, how they will benefit from it, and what will remain unaltered to take care of anxieties and resistances that are likely to crop up. It is

The Law of Torts, Product and Service Liability Law Assignment

The Law of Torts, Product and Service Liability Law - Assignment Example Against this background, this essay seeks to critically analyse the cases of Haimes v Temple University Hospital [1981] and the Vandevender v Sheetz, INC [1998]. Based on the law of torts and product and service liability laws, the essay seeks to compare and contrast the facts, law, and merits of the two lawsuits. The paper will also evaluate aspects related to the facts, issues, judgment, as well as ethical issue related to the two cases. A summary of the main points discussed will be given at the end of the essay. In the case of Haimes v. Temple University Hospital [1981] it can be noted that much of the plaintiff's testimony concerned her psychic activities and her inability to practice these activities following the CT scan. To read an aura, according to plaintiff, it is necessary to go into an altered state, a state of deep concentration. She complains that her psychic activities have been negatively impacted and she can no longer perform the tasks she used to do. It can be seen that this affected the occupation of the plaintiff and this is the reason why she got a favourable judgement. The jury gave the verdict in the amount of $600Â  000 which included Dr. Haimes loss of a consortium. In view of the Pennsylvania Rule of Civil Procedure 238, the verdict was molded to include delay damages of $386,465.75 and this brought the total award to $986,465.75. However, the motion for a new trial of the hospital and the doctor was granted given that the verdict was considered as grossly excessive as to shock the court’s sense of justice. In the case of Vandevender v Sheetz, INC [1997], the employee sustained a back injury at work and she was not permitted to return to work by the employer as a result of specific restrictions. She then appealed and punitive damages were awarded as a result of the unlawful termination of her employment. However, the punitive damages were found to be excessive since they did not corroborate with the actual harm as well as term ination of employment suffered by the plaintiff. A closer analysis of the case shows that the appellee was treated badly by the appellant, and that the appellant should have to pay her a fair amount of damages. In this case, the appelle was awarded $ 293,866.00 in compensatory and noneconomic damages for missing essentially four weeks of work as well as other related ill-treatment she received. However, an award of $ 2,232,740 is considered as too much. From the above cases, it can be noted that in order to prove the existence of day care duty, some conditions should prevail where a defendant can be taken to court if this duty is breached. Thus, the case of Capiro Industries vs. Dickman (1990), suggests that the following conditions should prevail in order for the plaintiff to win the case and these include: foreseeability, proximity as well as reasonability. Terry & Giugni (2009) concurs with this notion when he says that the following elements should be proved by the plaintiff in order to be successful in winning the claim. There is need to show that the defendant owed the plaintiff a duty of care, this duty has been breached by falling below expected standards, the defendant’s conduct caused the plaintiff to suffer physical or economic harm (causation) and the injury suffered was remote or foreseeable. However, it is not always easy to prove that the

Photography Richard Avedon Essay Example for Free

Photography Richard Avedon Essay â€Å"All photographs are accurate. None of them is the truth.†Ã¢â‚¬â€these are just of the famous words of one of the greatest photographers of out time, Richard Avedon.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In March 15, 1923, a Russian-Jewish immigrant couple gave birth to a baby boy. His name is Richard Avedon. No one thought that he would become one of the most notable photographers of our time. He attended the Dewitt Clinton High School in Bronx, New York but in 1940, at age 17, he dropped out of high school and decided to go into the Merchant Marine’s photographic sector; of which he was assigned to take photographs of the personnel. As time passed, he joined numerous missions to take pictures of shipwrecks. When he returned home in 1944, he instantly had an employment as a photographer for a certain department store. At the start, he earned his living mainly through various works in advertising. Within the two years that he had been working through that job, a director from Harper’s Bazaar spotted him and he began to work for the magazine. Later on, he also did photography jobs for Vogue, Look and many other related magazines (Avedon). He also became popular for his stylistic and ground-breaking fashion portfolio that was frequently set in dramatic and amusing locales. During these times, he realized however that his real passion was portraiture and its capability to articulate its subject(Wilson). He said numerous times in various interviews and magazines that there are basically two major influences all throughout his career. His â€Å"first professional† flirtation with the camera was when he join the merchant marines during the war. He reiterated that the raw professionalism that was required to develop those photographs called for an outright approach that afterward educated a portrait technique that have been described by many as ruthless and even merciless. Those moments in his life became very influential and made a very deep impact in the way he took his photographs all throughout his career. Even though he did not have a formal education and training as a photographer, that situation was a foremost learning experience for him. He learned to handle the camera, take the right angles and adjust the proper lighting among others. The other influence that had a bang on him is the elegant movements of the body, joie de vivre, common people and ordinary situations that happen in the streets. Because he grew up and got oriented with the people from his neighborhood, for him, the most genuine expressions can be expressed without a camera. In his photographs, these are his main objective—to capture people in their sincerest attitudes and forms. He had to live up to his reputation as one of the greatest portrait photographers of the modern times. There are also some photographers that he looked up to like Martin Munkacsi a prominent Hungarian photographer during his time. Munkacsi’s works of models running in nature amplified his curiosity in fashion photography (Edwards).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As one of the most reputable fashion photographer, he was able to modernize portraiture and fashion photography to instantly create a particular aesthetic that was able to influence countless other photographers. His signature technique was the outsized format studio portraits of his subjects which include writers, politicians and artists. He utilizes desolate white backgrounds and life-size printing which makes his viewers feel as if they are in/with a bond to the image; which is often a substantial and almost provoking experience. He has the ability to generate visual tension and astonish his viewer through unanticipated contrasts. As a portrait artist, his images are inimitable. Characteristically, they are usually the frontal angles of his subjects which often are rather full body or head. Mostly, is it in black and white and is taken against a white background. The resolution is typically impressive and the faces gaze right out from the pages with unwavering stare; thus conveying the vulgar intensity that we only usually see through our own reflections. Moreover, Avedon states that he usually pays close attention to the littlest details in his photographs. His philosophy, when it comes to his various subjects is that, the â€Å"objective recording of a subject is a fiction.† Accordingly, his photographs offer views by which we can construct an admiration of things that are too complex to be carefully captured by a solitary photograph (Staff).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although Avedon did not have a formal education and training at photography, his own experiences as a photographer for the merchant marines and in advertising landed him various photography jobs at leading magazines. Although it seems undeniable that he had the knack for photography, his determination, workmanship, ideas and professionalism led him to the pinnacle of his success. In the fashion industry, he is a notable photographer. Almost all throughout his career, he had taken pictures of some very interesting subjects which are mostly models, celebrities and politicians. But besides being a fashion photographer, he is also known as a portraiture artist and over the years, he has turned his career from that area into a more driven, natural and humane aspect. During the last years of his career, he ventured into taking pictures of the common people. The raw attitude that he gives to his subject are very obvious in his pictures. One can feel that the pictures are almost like talking to you. Undeniably, he is one of the purveyors of black and white photography in the modern times. His works are the most natural emotions that humans feel. The fact that only few photographers are able to take photographs of the most popular people at their most candid moments makes him truly one of the best photographers in the world. Works Cited: Avedon, Richard. An Autobiography. 1st ed ed, 1993. Edwards, Owen. Fashion Faux Paw. Smithsonian, 2005. Staff. Photographic Portraiture and the Work of Richard Avedon. 2008. Wilson, Laura. Avedon at Work: In the American West. University of Texas Press, 2003.

Workload Management in Mental Healthcare

Workload Management in Mental Healthcare Workload Management / Transition to Practice (Mental Health) Prescribed Evidence General Introduction The clinical setting I have chosen for the workload management is Connolly Norman House Mental Health Clinic. For my seven week placement in this clinic I was working with the CMHNs from the Mater Sector Community Services. The aims of the Mater Sector Team continuously focused on providing the highest standard of care to each patient while working in partnership with the service user and its family and respect the person’s individuality. The Mater Sector Team consisted of two consultant psychiatrists, two medical registrars, five CMHNs, one social worker, one clinical psychologist and one administrative secretary. Other services which were linked to the clinic included the main hospital, the day hospital, day centres and numerous other support services. Each CMHN had assigned a number of service users for which she has designated responsibility. Each patient’s care was planned in collaboration with them and the amount of input provided to each patient depended on how unwell somebody was and how much input was necessary was decided by the CMHN. In order to identify the care needs of service users, the Bio-Psycho-Social Nursing Assessment is used in the particular clinical setting chosen for this assignment. This model is recovery oriented and involves service user’s opinions on what is needed in order to improve their recovery journey. The main goal of this assessment framework is to empower the service user re-gaining a life, which includes responsibility, choice, risk taking, hope and social inclusion. The Quality Framework for Mental Health Services in Ireland (Mental Health Commission 2007) was the philosophical framework which guided my delivery of nursing care. The framework promotes a user centred, recovery focused approach. It aims to empower users of the service while also emphasising the person’s journey towards recovery. This framework is very broad and enabling as it applies to all services equally regardless whether care is being delivered in an in-patient setting, in the community or in the home. Client Work For the duration of my seven week placement in this clinic I was delegated a caseload of five patients but for this assignment I will focus only on three patients because of the word count limit. The patients to be taken onto my caseload were selected by my preceptor and the other CMHNs. John is a 76 year old man with a history of depressive disorder and anxiety. John lives alone and socially isolates himself. He is divorced for many years. He has two sons but has contact with only one of them who visits him regularly. His physical health is not very good as he has a history of diverticular disease which causes him abdominal and stomach pain. At the moment, objectively John does not display any symptoms of depression or anxiety and subjectively John reported â€Å"I am feeling ok now.† John’s main issue at the moment is that he continues to be socially isolated and remains unmotivated to go out for walks or to attend any of the groups in the Day Care Centres. When I met John for the first time I informed him what my role is and together we devised a care plan for him in order to reduce his social isolation and to remain well in mental and physical health. The first plan devised was in relation with his daily routine. I explained to him that incorporatin g short walks in his daily routine will benefit his physical and mental health. I also explained to John that social interaction is very important in reducing and preventing the symptoms of depression. John also agreed for me to refer him to â€Å"Befriending† services with a view to reduce his social isolation as they can make available one-to-one companionship once a week. John also agreed for me to visit him once a week and to go out for short walks. For the first two weeks John denied going out for walks together with me as we planned previously. He was displaying lack of motivation and he would find different reasons to avoid going out. As a former psychiatric nurse, John would always like to talk to me about his career and the hospital he was working with. As he was still living nearby his previous workplace, on my third visit I asked John if he would like to show me around the grounds next to the hospital where he used to work. John was very happy about this and agreed to go for a walk. For the next few weeks John appeared to be more motivated to go out for walks while me accompanying him and reported that he really enjoys the walks. Because John has a history of non-compliance with medication, on each of my home visits to him I ensured that he was taking his medication as prescribed and checked his dosset box. At the end of my placement John informed me that he is socialising more with his friends and agreed to continue to go out for walks few times a week. Sarah is a 44 year old lady with a diagnosis of chronic paranoid schizophrenia with prominent negative symptoms. Sarah has two sisters and one brother who died two years ago. She is living with her parents and they look after her at home. Sarah has major difficulties in attending self-care and ADL’s in general. She has a lack of daily routine spending much of her time in bed. She has isolated herself from the outside world since her early teenage years. Sarah has also difficulty in retaining information and is unable to travel on her own around town because of her lack of awareness regarding directions and safety. Because of this, her parents fear of her welfare or becoming lost. Since Sarah’s medication was changed to Clozapine, she has been more interactive with others and increasingly initiating conversation. She has also expressed an interest to attend the art and music therapy group in a Day Centre. I worked closely with Sarah and together we devised a care plan wi th a view to improve her self-care and to have more structure throughout the day. She also agreed for me to accompany her to the Day Centre in order to attend the art and music groups. This would improve her social activity outside of home and her independence by improving her directions skills to and from the Day Centre. Next, we formulated a plan to be followed every day and that consist of her to have a shower in the morning, helping her mum to prepare the meals for the day and going out for walks daily accompanied by one of her parents. While I accompanied Sarah to the Day Centre I used picture and monument identification folder to identify what bus to get and what stop to wait at. I also allowed Sarah to lead the way with minimal assistance. At the end of my placement Sarah had more structure to her day and her mum informed me that she could see a real improvement in Sarah’s behaviour while attending her activities of daily living. Sarah’s interaction with other p eople in the day centre also improved and she reported that she really enjoys the groups. She was still unsure of bus route numbers but she was able to lead the way from the bus stop to her house. Sarah and her family were delighted of her improvements. Mary is a 77 year old lady with a long history of paranoid schizophrenia. Mary has one daughter and after the separation from her husband, she lived with her mother who would look after her and her daughter. Since her mother died twenty years ago Mary lives on her own but her daughter and her sister visit her regularly. At the moment Mary’s mental state is stable and she complies with the medication prescribed. However, Mary feels that her memory is poor and she is worried about not being able to manage paying the bills. After I had been introduced to Mary, together we devised a care plan in order to reduce her anxiety in relation of not being able to remember things and to reduce her worries regarding bills. Mary agreed to use a notebook to write down what she needs to remember. I also encouraged her to attend for an assessment with psychiatry of old age and she agreed for me to talk with one of the doctors in the clinic about this. Mary also agreed for me to complete a budge t plan form for her and to send it to†¦.I also encouraged her to pay the bills weekly until this would come into effect. Furthermore, I advised Mary to have more social outlets by attending day services or community social services. Mary agreed with this and asked me to refer her to one of the day centres. At the end of my work with Mary she informed me that using the notebook helped her significantly about recalling things she has to do and that she is using it very often. I also informed Mary that I was in contact with one of the charity organisations and they agreed to help her pay the bills until she could use the budget plan and she was very happy with this. Mary continues to attend a day centre once a week and she finds it very enjoyable. Mary was pleased with the help she received from me as she informed me and I advised her to contact the CMHN if she has concerns regarding her mental health and for support. Management Tasks During my placement, I carried out numerous administrative and management tasks, including: answering the phone and taking messages for other members of the team, carrying forward patient’s appointments for their depot injections and ordering from the pharmacy if necessary. I would also take part in organising and filing medical and nursing notes. Seeing that there was an administrative secretary in the clinic she carried out many of the administrative tasks. Workload Management For this assignment I am going to describe a typical working day within Mater Services Team in the clinic of Connolly Norman House. The day usually commences at 9:00hrs and ends at 17:00hrs. After arriving I informed my preceptor that I have to carry out two home visits to two of the patients in the morning. At 9:30hrs I left the clinic to visit one of my patients. I arrived at my patient’s house at 9:45. I accompanied my patient for a walk and to the local coffee shop for a cup of tea. After we returned to my patient’s house I completed a nursing assessment with him. I left the patient’s house at 11:00hrs. I walked to visit my next patient. I arrived at her house at 11:15. After I have talked with my patient about how she feels and about her concerns I went back to the clinic. I arrived at the clinic at 12:15hrs. I recorded in the patients nursing notes regarding the home visits. I also did a handover to my preceptor about the two patients. While in the office, I had to answer the phone and record a few messages in the message book. I also had to make a referral for one of the patients to one of the support services for people with mental illness. After I completed the referral, I went for my lunch break from 13:00hr to 13:45hrs. In the afternoon from 14:00hrs to 17:00hrs patients are expected to attend the clinic in order to receive their depot injection and to attend their appointment with the doctor. At 1:45 I went to the clinical room to prepare the trolley for the depot injections. The clinic lasted from 14:00hrs until 16:30hrs. During this time I had to administer depot injections under the supervision of staff nurse and afterwards I sign the patient’s kardex and get it co-signed by the nurse who supervised me. I then ensured to follow up the depot book and document when his/her depot is next due and I informed the patient when they are due to return again and provide them with an appointment card. I also had to check each pat ient’s vital signs and weight as part of a physical screening evaluation programme. At one point I had to link with the secretary as I couldn’t find one of the patient’s kardex but she couldn’t find it either. Therefore I had to ask the doctor to re-write a new kardex in order for the patient to receive her depot injection. While in the clinic I also had to take two phone messages and pass them on to one of the CMHN. At 16:30hrs I went for a hand over from the doctors working within our catchment area. The handover was regarding new referred patients to the services and lasted for 30 minutes. I had to record all the information from the doctors with regards new patients referred to the services. I finished work at 17:00hrs. Conclusion After completing this placement I feel I have gained a lot of experience in working in the community. By having my own caseload it encouraged me to use my own initiative and whenever I felt in a challenging position I always asked for guidance from my preceptor or other staff nurse. My preceptor and the other CMHNs supported and guided me throughout my seven weeks placement.

Edgar Allen Poe :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The gothic short stories and poems of Edgar Allan Poe are so outstanding that they are still being read today. He only lived for forty years yet made such a huge impact on literature. Poe tells Thomas W. Fredrick in a letter, why he became a writer. â€Å" Depend upon it, after all, Thomas, Literature is the most noble of professions. In fact, it is about the only one fit for a man. For my own part, there is no seducing me from the path.†(Edgar Allan Poe’s Life, intro page) The word that best describes the life and works of Edgar Allan Poe would have to be mystery. Not only is it seen in his literary works, but in his life as well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Edgar Allan Poe was born in Boston on January 19, 1809 to Elizabeth Arnold Poe and David Poe Jr. His parents were both actors who hardly made enough money to live on. Edgar had two siblings, an older brother named William Henry, who lived with relatives in Baltimore, and a baby sister named Rosalie. When Edgar was about two years old, his father died, or disappeared (no one knows for sure). Shortly after, his mother died of tuberculosis, the two children were all alone. In 1811,a t the age of two, Poe was taken in by John and Frances Allan. Mr. Allan Refused to adopt Edgar but said he could stay with them. Rosalie was taken by another family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Poe lived in Richmond until he was six years old, then the Allans and Poe moved to Scotland. Poe attended school at Irvine Grammar School and for several years at Manor House School in Stoke Newington. (The Manor may have been reproduced in some of the darkly romantic houses in Poe’s stories). When Edgar was eleven the Allan’s returned to Richmond. There he went to school at an English and Classical School attended by the more wealthy children. At this time, Edgar began to notice how diffrent he was and began to feel bitterness towards his mother and Mr. Allan. He expressed his feelings at age sixteen, when he began to write poems and short stories. He became very arrogant and didn’t get along with anyone.

Essay --

San Jose State University Intro Sociology – M/W 9:00AM Paper #1 – Gun Control & Regulation 1. In your own words, please describe the problem or social issue that you have chosen to write about. What is the extent of the problem or issue as you see it or understand it? The gun control debate had been going on for a long time in America. What I seem to know about the debate is that whether Americans should own guns. In the United States Constitution there is a law that says the right to bear arms. Back then the people of the Untied States just wanted to protect themselves. However, today guns are killing many Americans. There had been many similar dangerous situations where people had been killed by guns. One of the situations can be a school shooting that endangered students. I believe that because of these kinds of situations are happening Americans should keep or be allowed to have guns. They believe that having guns keeps the citizens safe and protected. The people might say that if a bugler came to the house they would have some way of defending themselves. Others might say t...

virgin atlantic Essay -- essays research papers fc

THE AVIATION INDUSTRY The aviation industry of any nation acts as a contributor to its economic growth, helps in globalisation and creating an international image. It is the best in terms of the fastest, safest and convenient mode of travel. Even though it is an expensive one, it is expanding its markets across the middle-class who are ready to spent money on leisure trips. Thus it is truly stated that aviation forms a vital core infrastructure area without which a country economy is handicapped. The civil aviation industry of world has expanded its wings by letting in private organisations. Privatisation in the domestic and the international circuit can help in foreseeing the future of the aviation industry at a mark up rise, and gaining international recognition. It started eight years back with Open Sky Policy allowing charter flights to operate in domestic market. Today in the year 2000 we saw the code sharing agreement between Air India and Virgin Atlantic Airlines for the DEL- LON sector. During the last nine months there has been fare wars, value added services, alliances etc. Suddenly there seems some action in the Aviation Industry, where Virgin has acted as a lubricator. There are many other airlines, in bid of competition increasing their capacities or increase their flights for the same route. Introduction In the early 80s, when Virgin Atlantic was created, by Richard Branson was a go getting, sweater wearing entrepreneur and head of the successful Virgin Group, probably best known for Virgin Records. By the early 1980s, Virgin Records was one of the top six record companies in the world. Then, in 1984, Richard got a phone call out of the blue suggesting a jumbo jet passenger service between London and New York. Branson like the idea, much to the horror of his fellow directors who thought him crazy. Undeterred, Richard announced to the world that Virgin Atlantic Airways would begin operating†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦within three months! An aircraft was found, staff were hired, licences granted and, thanks in no small part to Richard's infectious enthusiasm, on 22 June 1984 an aircraft packed with friends and the media set off for Newark, New York - and a phenomenon was born! Since then, Virgin Atlantic has become the second largest long-haul international airline operating services out of London's Heathrow and Gatwick Airports to 21 destinations all over the world - ... ... quality and value for money has gained the loyalty of many passengers. Its services, which are exclusive to this airline, enhance the experience of people on board. What more could you ask from an airline which has built an excellent. All this and more has resulted in a tough competition with its competitors, but Virgin Atlantic faces competition as a motivating factor, which would help them to grow in the long term. Virgin Atlantic has opened up a destination for Richard Branson to offer him a platform to invest in other activities. As it is known that Virgin Company has diversified itself into other products in other parts of world. BIBLIOGRAPHY Lovelock, C., â€Å"Services Marketing†, Prentice Hall, 1991. Kotler.P, â€Å"Marketing Management†, Prentice Hall of India, 1999 Payne, A., â€Å"The Essence of Services Marketing†, Prentice Hall of India, 1996. Luck, Rubin, â€Å" Marketing Research†, Prentice Hall India, New Delhi, 1996. Bernhardt, Kinnear, â€Å"Cases in Marketing Management†, Butterworth Heinemann, 1997. WEBSITES www.virginatlantic.com www.airindia.com www.tourismindia.com MAGAZINES Business Standard Aviation. Business World. Todays Traveler- The Business and Leisure virgin atlantic Essay -- essays research papers fc THE AVIATION INDUSTRY The aviation industry of any nation acts as a contributor to its economic growth, helps in globalisation and creating an international image. It is the best in terms of the fastest, safest and convenient mode of travel. Even though it is an expensive one, it is expanding its markets across the middle-class who are ready to spent money on leisure trips. Thus it is truly stated that aviation forms a vital core infrastructure area without which a country economy is handicapped. The civil aviation industry of world has expanded its wings by letting in private organisations. Privatisation in the domestic and the international circuit can help in foreseeing the future of the aviation industry at a mark up rise, and gaining international recognition. It started eight years back with Open Sky Policy allowing charter flights to operate in domestic market. Today in the year 2000 we saw the code sharing agreement between Air India and Virgin Atlantic Airlines for the DEL- LON sector. During the last nine months there has been fare wars, value added services, alliances etc. Suddenly there seems some action in the Aviation Industry, where Virgin has acted as a lubricator. There are many other airlines, in bid of competition increasing their capacities or increase their flights for the same route. Introduction In the early 80s, when Virgin Atlantic was created, by Richard Branson was a go getting, sweater wearing entrepreneur and head of the successful Virgin Group, probably best known for Virgin Records. By the early 1980s, Virgin Records was one of the top six record companies in the world. Then, in 1984, Richard got a phone call out of the blue suggesting a jumbo jet passenger service between London and New York. Branson like the idea, much to the horror of his fellow directors who thought him crazy. Undeterred, Richard announced to the world that Virgin Atlantic Airways would begin operating†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦within three months! An aircraft was found, staff were hired, licences granted and, thanks in no small part to Richard's infectious enthusiasm, on 22 June 1984 an aircraft packed with friends and the media set off for Newark, New York - and a phenomenon was born! Since then, Virgin Atlantic has become the second largest long-haul international airline operating services out of London's Heathrow and Gatwick Airports to 21 destinations all over the world - ... ... quality and value for money has gained the loyalty of many passengers. Its services, which are exclusive to this airline, enhance the experience of people on board. What more could you ask from an airline which has built an excellent. All this and more has resulted in a tough competition with its competitors, but Virgin Atlantic faces competition as a motivating factor, which would help them to grow in the long term. Virgin Atlantic has opened up a destination for Richard Branson to offer him a platform to invest in other activities. As it is known that Virgin Company has diversified itself into other products in other parts of world. BIBLIOGRAPHY Lovelock, C., â€Å"Services Marketing†, Prentice Hall, 1991. Kotler.P, â€Å"Marketing Management†, Prentice Hall of India, 1999 Payne, A., â€Å"The Essence of Services Marketing†, Prentice Hall of India, 1996. Luck, Rubin, â€Å" Marketing Research†, Prentice Hall India, New Delhi, 1996. Bernhardt, Kinnear, â€Å"Cases in Marketing Management†, Butterworth Heinemann, 1997. WEBSITES www.virginatlantic.com www.airindia.com www.tourismindia.com MAGAZINES Business Standard Aviation. Business World. Todays Traveler- The Business and Leisure

Alexander Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock” and John Milton’s Paradise Lost Essay

The main female characters in Alexander Pope’s â€Å"The Rape of the Lock† and John Milton’s Paradise Lost are seen at first as extensions of the male characters, at the mercy of supernatural forces. Does their rebellion show that they begin to break the chains of male dominion? A view of the actions of Eve and Belinda can be seen as rebellion against their controllers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Eve, the main female character of John Milton’s Paradise Lost, comes to the forefront in Book IX, after she has taken her first independent action, that of eating the apple. To understand the actions of Eve, it is important to understand Milton’s view of the interactions between God, Adam and Eve.   Roberta Martin states In Paradise Eve, the â€Å"mother of mankind†, is the figure of a contained, â€Å"other† creative energy that is carefully derivative: she herself was â€Å"derived† from Adam’s rib, and she is under Adam’s domination in the hierarchy of the Father’s â€Å"perfect† Symbolic†¦ Eve is subordinate to Adam because she is â€Å"lacking†. The Father intends her to be a deliberately limited and controlled Other. (61) On Eve’s first awakening in the garden, the difference between Adam and herself is made clear. While he wonders who he is, and is aware of himself as a differentiated entity, Eve wonders where and what she is, and is not aware of any difference between herself and her surroundings – as one with no conception of the separateness of her being, she begins life as an Object, rather than as a Person (Martin, 70). From this perspective, it is clear that Eve is at first fully controlled by the desires of Adam and of God, her joint Creators. It is not until, daring to become a Person,   she expresses her own desires; then, further defying her masters, she chooses to eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. She begins, tentatively, to have opinions of her own and thoughts as to how the Garden should work – she starts innocently, with a suggestion as to how the work should be done.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Let us divide our labors, thou where choice   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Leads thee, or where most needs, whether to wind   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   †¦   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With Myrtle, find what to redress till Noon:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Our task we choose, what wonder if so near,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Looks intervene and smiles, or object new   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Casual Discourse draws on, which intermits   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Our day’s work brought to so little, though begun   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Early, and th’hour of Supper comes unearn’d. (Milton, 209). Adam objects sharply to this suggestion, leaving no doubt that Eve has gone against his wishes for, perhaps, the first time. â€Å"for nothing lovelier can be found In Woman/than to study household good,/and good works in her Husband to promote (Milton, 209).† And yet, he concedes sadly, â€Å"But if much converse perhaps/Thee satiate, to short absence I could yield. /For solitude sometimes is best society/And short retirement urges sweet return (Milton, 209).† Eve has won her first, small battle – that for time on her own, without the companionship of Adam, whom she was conceived as Companion for.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Adam is not yet done attempting to assert his will, and God’s will, over Eve.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   But God left free the Will, for what obeys Reason  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   , is free and Reason he made right, But bid her well beware and still erect, Lest by some fair appearing good surpris’d, She dictate false, and misinform the Will To do what God expressly hath forbid. (Milton, 212) Eve is, here, to be allowed some freedom of her will, but only if it is within the rules already outlined for her. Temptation follows in the form of the Serpent and she defies the wishes of Adam and of God, and eats the Fruit she has been forbidden. This is her greatest act of rebellion, and the point at which she throws off the chains of her Creation. She gains the knowledge that had been forbidden her; she conceives of a desire, that of being an equal. She ponders â€Å"In Female Sex, the more to draw his Love,/ and render me more equal, and perhaps,/ a thing not undesirable, sometime/Superior, for inferior who is free? (Milton, 225)† Suddenly aware of the possibility of her own death, she resolves to share the knowledge she has gained with Adam, for â€Å"So dear I love him, that with him all deaths/I could endure, without him live no life. (Milton 225)† So choosing the path of love over the path of knowledge, she feeds the fruit to Adam, and brings the wrath of the Creator down upon their heads. Milton is not content to let Eve’s transgression, that of throwing off the patriarchal rule and allowing her own will to become paramount, pass lightly. For he closes, â€Å"Thus it shall befall/Him who to worth in Woman overtrusting/Lets her Will rule. (Milton 234).†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   If Eve is a creation of Adam and God, Belinda is a creation of Man’s conception of Woman, and the object of a struggle between Man and the supernatural. Rising only late in the morning, she spends hours at her toilet, grooming obsessively in order to meet her admirers. Pope inquires:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Say what strange motive, goddess! Could compel   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A well-bred lord t’assault a gentle belle?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   O say what stranger cause, yet unexplored,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Could make a gentle belle reject a lord? (Pope, 28) Belinda is the beloved of the sylphs, for her purity and beauty are made in their image. One whispers to her as she lies sleeping â€Å"Know farther yet; whoever fair and chaste/Rejects mankind, is by some sylph embraced:/For spirits, freed from mortal laws, with ease/Assume what sexes and what shapes they please (Pope, 29).† When she ventures out, all fall to her charms, including the Baron; â€Å"Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay (Pope, 32)†. All, that is, except the Sylph, who sees in the Baron a rival for Belinda’s affections. The Baron conceives of a plan – to wrest a lock from Belinda’s unsuspecting head, thus despoiling her. Despite the guardianship of the Sylphs, he succeeds: â€Å"He takes the gift with reverence and extends/the little engine on his finger ends; /This just behind Belinda’s neck he spread, /As o’er the fragrant steams she bends her head (Pope, 38).† The sylphs are enraged – â€Å"Not Cynthia, when her manteau’s pinned awry/E’er felt such rage, resentment and despair,/ As thou, sad virgin! for thy ravished hair. (Pope, 39).† The spirits desert Belinda, and she is left at the mercy of new knowledge of love; bereft of her beauty with the lock of hair, she falls into a dark despair, abandoning her previous beauty regime and descending into slovenliness. Driven to rage, she attacks the Baron for his unforgivably churlish act: See fierce Belinda on the baron flies, With more than usual lightning in her eyes, Nor feared the chief th’unequal fight to try, But this bold lord with manly strength subdued†¦ â€Å"Now meet thy feate,† incensed Belinda cried, And drew a deadly bodkin from her side. (Pope, 45)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Belinda, in rebellion against the desires of Man, throws off the strictures of her previous role as Virgin and takes the persona of Warrior. â€Å"Restore the lock!† is Belinda’s cry – she desires what has been taken from her to be returned, as she desires to return to her previous state of innocence. Belinda is not a puppet of the supernatural nor of Man; her rebellion is against the unending march of maturity and gained knowledge, not against the machinations of those who would control her. Belinda has chosen the supernatural rather than the control of Man, and has wrested control of her Self back from the man who would control her. She is still a creature of Man’s conception, but she is no longer a creature for Man’s desire.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Eve and Belinda represent two very different views of female rebellion and independence. Eve, in choosing to perform an action expressly forbidden by her creators, has chosen the path of opposition; Belinda has chosen the control of one of her creators, rejecting the path of the other, who held himself in opposition to the first’s wishes. Belinda has chosen the path not of rebellion, but of total rejection of the assertion of Man’s control. Works Cited Pope, Alexander. â€Å"The Poetry of Pope: A Selection†. New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1954. Martin, Roberta C. â€Å"How Came I Thus?: Adam and Eve in the Mirror of the Other.† College Literature, 27.2 (2000): 57-79. Milton, John. â€Å"Paradise Lost.† New York: Odyssey Press, 1962.

Confession of a Former Drug Addict: Learning the Value of Family

Confession of a Former Drug Addict: Learning the Value of Family Misguided Youth â€Å"Oh now that I think back about it, I was really stupid when I was young and that my mother is really unfortunate to have a son like me! † Kong said as he ended with a short embarrassed laugh while he recounts the past he isn’t exactly proud of in mandarin. Kong, 36 , had spent most of his youth in and out of the drug rehabilitation centre and prison. His parents separated while he was still young and their mother decided to bring him and his younger brother along to move into their grandmother’s place at Ang Mo Kio.Kong was the eldest among the grandchildren left in his grandmother’s care. With his mother busy at work to support the family and his grandmother busy attending the younger kids, the mischievous boy always finds the chance to sneak out of the house. It was then when he got acquainted and started hanging out with the older kids around his neighborhood. These a re the friends that very much influenced and helped mold him into a teenage delinquent. â€Å"I was encouraged by them to join their gang, to skip school and hang out with them.And it was then when I learn how to shoplift, cutting chain off bicycles to steal, extorting money from other kids and getting into fight for the most minor reason, just for the sake of getting into trouble and seeking thrill out of it. †, Kong explained how he was a wayward boy that followed whatever his peers instigated. â€Å"And it felt really good to be part of the gang and ‘cool’ to be doing things other normal ‘good’ kids didn't dare to do. † It was then when young Kong’s misbehaviors and actions, prove that it can have direct consequence on his family, and the first to experience it was none other than his younger brother.Both brothers were studying in the same neighborhood secondary school. Kong’s truancy and bad records kept piling up and finally one day, he even threatened to hurt the school’s principal while being called to discipline. That’s when the school decided enough is enough, and Kong’s expulsion was announced. But not just him alone, his younger brother was to be expelled along with him. Sure the younger brother wasn’t exactly the good obedient student, had been seen around Kong, caused some mischief and playful enough to skip school occasionally.But he never crossed the line or got involved with Kong’s unlawful activities. Still, the school found these reasons enough to get the siblings off their ground permanently. â€Å"The principal felt that because he’s my younger brother, he’s nature is surely as bad as me! Just because he’s my younger brother. † Kong said while shaking his head slightly. â€Å"You may think that’s unfair but things were different back then during that time. Now if something like this happened nowadays, you will see the principal and school getting onto news! † Kong ended with a laugh. From Bad to WorseHis mother and grandmother blamed him for dragging his younger brother into that situation because of the troubles he brewed and being a bad influence. But this incident didn’t make Kong reflect on his actions. He didn't think of it as a big deal. He didn’t care about anything. The teenager’s rebellious nature only served to take things for the worse. Soon after getting expelled from school, he soon finds himself experimenting with drugs. It was the norm as people around him were doing inhalants and drugs. The first he experimented was glue sniffing. Then he moved on to trying out ecstasy and heroin etc.Experimentation turns into dependency. The addiction works in an insidious way, it crept in and slowly took over Kong’s life before he realized. Days of drug taking ritual turned to weeks, then months and years. It seems like Kong wasn’t the one controlling th e drugs, it was the other way round. Spending his life in a drug-fuelled haze, it revolved around being troubled over where to find money to support his next supply of drugs. Keeping up with the addiction proof to be not cheap. Although he had joined and worked for the lion dance troupe that was associated with his gang, it wasn’t enough to keep up with his expenses.To satisfy with his drug cravings, he resorted to theft and robbery, even stealing from his family. The one he hurt most during this period was his mother. Seeing her cry because of him was nothing new. His desperation for drug even made him turned his hand on his very own mother. Kong recalls that particular incident that he will feel bad for as long as he lived, â€Å"This one time I was having this great urge for drugs, but I didn't have money with me, I ransacked the house and approached my mother in the kitchen. But she wasn’t willing to hand me any money and was screaming at me to quit.I got impatien t and this sudden surge of anger rose up and I exploded,† He slapped his own mother across the face. Kong then continued remorsefully, â€Å"I was an unfilial and disgraceful son. Unfit to be human for hurting my mother like that. Like what they say, I deserved to be struck down by lightning. † Relatives chided him as being ‘useless, and a shame to the family. ’ Kong ended up caught and admitted to the drug rehabilitation centre. After his release, Kong was still mixing around with the ‘bad’ group of friends as he felt being shunned by the society and this was the group of people most accepting of him.He couldn’t stay clean and soon fell back to his old ways after gaining freedom. He was sent back to the drug rehabilitation centre once more for relapse. â€Å"I was stubborn and self-centered. I didn't really try hard or be determined enough to change my life. I just thought I was unlucky to be caught the first few times. ’ Kong s ays. He continued his old ways, involving in gang fight and robbery with hurt. He was sentenced to imprisonment for a total of 7 years and given 10 strokes of cane. Turning PointWhen he was finally released from Changi Prison, Kong, 30 by that time, felt that he had already wasted a large part of his youth. He made sure to remind himself of the guilt and shame. The heart wrenching moment etched in his memories when he saw how his mother broke down in tears when he was sentenced, how his aged grandmother with declining health having to make her way to visit him in prison over the years. â€Å"I robbed my mother for years because of my rebellious nature, because of my selfishness. All I did was lying and being dishonest with everything they confronted with me.I never thought about the damage I imposed on my family because of my actions. I took advantage on how they dote, only to make them heart-broken. † Kong confessed. Now, he deeply understands for mistakes he made, he wonâ⠂¬â„¢t be the only one paying his dues. His family and loved ones will inevitably bear his consequences one way or the other. Among the tattoos that he was inked over his body during his rebellious younger days, he is now sporting a ‘sak yant’ on his back, a traditional form of tattoo normally performed on followers by Buddhist monks in Thailand.He decided to embrace Buddhism and was on a religious trip to Thailand to receive a ‘sak yant’. But the tattoo wasn’t what he received. It was there where he got to know this local young woman from Chiang Mai, who soon became his wife. Kong and his wife now have two young daughters. Unfortunately, their first daughter Elina, 6, is diagnosed with minor autism and currently attending a special school. But their younger daughter has an even more unfortunate fate. Rita, now 3, was born with a severe spinal deformity which was curved at 80 to 90 degree in ‘S’ shape.She is the youngest and one of the m ost serious cases of congenital scoliosis in Singapore. Two titanium rods each 15 cm to 20 cm long was inserted into her body to straighten her spine and ribs when she was 2. Every six to nine months, Rita will have to go through operations until she is 14 years old, to expand the rods allowing growth. Being the sole breadwinner of the family, Kong currently works as a cargo assistant with a monthly salary of $1600. He tried to working overtime whenever possible so as to provide more support to his family.He was able to cover more about half of the medical expenses from his own Medisave and Medifunds for Rita’s medical expenses. He shared how he learnt humility and helpfulness receiving help from relatives and donations arranged by the hospital. â€Å"Sometimes I think that maybe it’s because of my past deeds, it might have been my karma that caused even my daughters to have to suffer. Being a father made me realized how much the heart hurts when parents see their chi ldren suffer, like how my mother used to feel.Even now, I haven’t revealed all Rita’s condition to my Thai wife. I’m worried she may not be able to take it. Sometimes she will cry while looking at the long deep surgery scars running on Rita’s back. .† Kong said. â€Å"I’m really grateful for my family and relatives who knew of my past, but still accepted me, loved and cared for my daughters as their own too. † Kong added. Even though life may not have turn up perfect, family is now the fuel and motivation for Kong to not turn back his old ways, to be a responsible father and son.

Trifles: Murder and Mrs. Hale

Susan Glaspell’s one act play Trifles is a clever tale which highlights the way in which women were dismissed in the early twentieth century and perhaps in some ways still today. Glaspell uses the scene of a terrible crime to engage the audience and then deliver her social message. This play is mostly about the way in which women in her day were ignored. The play takes place in a farm house in the Midwest during the present day, around 1916. Mr. Henderson, a county attorney, and Mr.Peters, a sheriff, have come to the farm to investigate the strangling murder of John Wright. One of John Wright’s neighbors named Mr. Hale discovered the body and found Mrs. Wright sitting downstairs acting in an odd manner. He has come to assist them with his testimony. Two women accompany them, the sheriff’s wife Mrs. Peters and the neighbor’s wife, Mrs. Hale. As the play unfolds, the men remain baffled by the lack of any evidence pointing directly to Ms. Wright as the killer . The case will not be entirely resolved due to an apparent lack of evidence of any motive.The two male investigators see women’s values and motivations in a disrespectful light – as mere trifles – and because of this attitude they fundamentally misunderstand the crime they are investigating and turn the two women into enemies who protect Mrs. Wright by tampering with the evidence. The men fail to see the household disarray as evidence. When entering the home, the poor maintenance in the household is apparent to all four characters in this play. The County Attorney exclaims, â€Å"Dirty towels! Not much of a housekeeper, would you say ladies? † (1114). The women defend Mrs.Wright. Mrs. Hale responds, â€Å"Those towels get dirty awful quick. Men's hands aren't always as clean as they might be† (1114). And after the men are out of earshot, Mrs. Hale is clearly identifying with Mrs. Wright when she complains: â€Å"I'd hate to have men coming into m y kitchen, snooping around and criticizing† (1114). Although all four characters recognize that the house is not well kept, but only the women immediately understand that something was terribly wrong. The men go no further with their interpretation of what the women instantly recognize as signs of discord in the home.A central piece of evidence in this play is a quilt that is being made by the suspect, Mrs. Wright, at the time of the murder. Upon inspecting Mrs. Wright’s things, Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters come across an unfinished quilt. It is Mrs. Hale who notices that the last section of the quilt is different. She points out to Mrs. Peters that the stitching in most of the quilt is well-developed and carefully knitted. This is in sharp contrast to the most recent piece of quilt. This final section has misplaced stitches and the poor workmanship which would happen under a high degree of emotional distress. Mrs.Hale realizes this only moments after the county attorney c omplains about a missing piece of evidence explaining: â€Å"It's all perfectly clear except a reason for doing it. But you know juries when it comes to women. If there was some definite thing. Something to show – something to make a story about – a thing that would connect up with this strange way of doing it† (1121). Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters realize that they are, in fact, looking at the exact evidence the county attorney had in mind. Mrs. Hale quietly undoes the stitching. Another critical piece of evidence is the knot stitching in the quilt.Early in the play, the sheriff scoffs at the silliness of women discussing the type of stitching used to construct a quilt in the middle of an important murder scene, exclaiming sarcastically, â€Å"They wonder if she was going to quilt it or just knot it! † (1116). The point of view of the sheriff is clearly one in which he belittles female concerns over such a small detail when what he sees as a real concern, su ch as murder, is in question. The sheriff and county attorney ultimately fail to realize, or even consider, the critical nature of this evidence.At the end of the play, the sheriff takes a moment to tease the women a bit more about this topic. His sarcastic question about the quilting style is answered by a wicked pun from the author. Mrs. Hale explains that Mrs. Wright, instead of quilting it, was going to â€Å"knot it† ( 1121). Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters understand that this reference to a knot is in fact a direct reference to the way in which Mrs. Wright murdered her husband, by tying a knot around his neck and strangling him to death. She tied a knot in the quilt the same way she tied a knot around her husband’s neck.The irony of this pun is that this very evidence, seen as laughable by the county attorney, is actually central to the murder of Mr. Wright. Although the knot is right in front of his face, he would not be able to see the meaning of it in a million yea rs. The most obvious piece of evidence missed by the male investigators is the singing bird. As the women are collecting clothing and items to bring to Mrs. Wright at the jail, they come across a bird cage. Three questions are immediately evident. First, why is there a bird cage but no bird?Second, what happened to the door of the bird cage? Of course, this leads to the third and final important question: if the bird is missing, where is it? Within a few minutes, the women discover the fate of the bird. They find the pet hidden away with great care. It is wrapped in silk inside Mrs. Wright’s fanciest sewing box. Clearly this was a type of burial, a shrine to a beloved pet. The women make all of the central connections between the dead bird and the crime that the men are investigating. They immediately realize that the singing bird was Mrs.Wright’s only companion. Mrs. Peters notes that the hinge on one side of the door has been ripped out and not fixed as if someone br oke into the cage to kill the animal. They see clearly that the bird’s neck was broken and understand that this beloved pet was killed out of shear meanness by the overbearing; soul-crushing Mr. Wright. Mrs. Peters volunteers a story about one of her own pets that was killed by boys that she knew when she was younger. They instantly understand that Mrs. Wright murdered her husband in retaliation for this brutal act.They see that this was the motive behind this murder. The bird in this play is a reminder of the care-free, singing, younger Minnie Foster who has now become the lonely, miserable Mrs. Wright. Mrs. Hale’s recollections link the bird to Mrs. Wright. She explains to Mrs. Peters that when she was single years ago, Minnie Foster was well known in the community for being pretty, well dressed, and singing like a bird in the choir. Mrs. Hale observes, recalling Minnie Foster’s singing, that â€Å"he killed that too† (1120).The central misunderstanding in this play is the male investigator’s inability to grasp the meaning of the readily available evidence. As the title suggests, the men see women’s work and women’s concerns as mere trifles. The men comment on the poor housekeeping in the home but do not seem to understand why or how it is related to the murder they are investigating. The men fail to see why the bird cage is crucial evidence. The men investigating the crime make no effort to examine the quilting done by Mrs. Wright. The women, on the other hand, see all of these things in stark relief.They understand that the shabby condition of the home and the poor housekeeping criticized by the male investigators reflect the increasing alienation and despair of Mrs. Wright. The women instantly see the significance of the quilt. They recognize the incriminating nature of the emotional distress reflected in the shoddy last section of the quilt. They also find the crucial evidence of the case by inspecting the sewing box. The women find the murdered bird. When they do, they immediately see that the bird is the lynch pin of the case. The bird is the motive.The bird explains, both in terms of meaning and in the reality of its broken neck, what actually happened to John Wright. He murdered the bird, so she murdered him The blindness of the men to the nature of the crime and their condescension to Mrs. Wright emboldens the women at the scene to destroy evidence. Both Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters make it clear that they blame themselves for having been poor friends to Mrs. Wright. Perhaps Mrs. Hale puts this best when she says â€Å"I stayed away because it weren’t cheerful—and that’s why I ought to have come† (1118).They even resolve to bring Mrs. Wright her bottle of preserves as a token of their concern and understanding. Subsequently, Mrs. Hale destroys the evidence of the poor stitching on the last quilt segment. She does this because she realizes that this is ac tually incriminating evidence because it reflects Mrs. Wright’s emotional state. Following this, both Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters further tamper with the evidence by hiding the dead bird. When the men asked what happened to the bird, Mrs. Hale lies: â€Å"We think—the cat got it† (1119). Mrs. Peters could contradict Mrs.Hale. By not doing so she is also agreeing to lie and assisting Mrs. Hale in the destruction of evidence. In the final scene, both women attempt to hide the body of the bird and Mrs. Hale succeeds. They realize that the men are blind to the real motivation and nature of this crime. They are unafraid to destroy evidence which they know the men are too self-absorbed to find on their own. The play Trifles is a play about the lack of perspective men have for women’s issues. At every turn, evidence for this crime is available and plain to see.The male investigators fail to see the evidence of the murder because of their disrespect of things that are important to women. In addition, by being so dismissive and callous, they turn the two women who actually understand the crime against them. In the end, they fail to see much of the evidence. The women hide the remaining evidence easily. The women truly understand the crime and are certainly not going to assist in the prosecution of a woman who they realize has been treated so poorly. Glaspell is telling us to beware seeing other people’s work, hopes, and dreams as trifles.

Evolution of Management Essay

As long as there have been human endeavors, there have been people willing to take charge—people willing to plan, organize, staff, and control the work. One might say that nature abhors a vacuum and thus someone will always step forward to fill a leadership void. Probably the natural emergence of leadership grew out of our instinct for survival. In the hostile world of early humankind, food, shelter, and safety needs usually required cooperative efforts, and cooperative efforts required some form of leadership. Certainly leadership was vested in the heads of early families via the patriarchal system. The oldest member of the family was the most experienced and was presumed to be the wisest member of the family and thus was the natural leader. As families grew into tribes and tribes evolved into nations, more complex forms of leadership were required and did evolve. Division of labor and supervision practices is recorded on the earliest written record, the clay tablets of the Sumerians. In Sumerian society, as in many others since, the wisest and best leaders were thought to be the priests and other religious leaders. Likewise, the ancient Babylonian cities developed very strict codes, such as the code of Hammurabi. King Nebuchadnezzar used color codes to control production of the hanging gardens, and there were weekly and annual reports, norms for productivity, and rewards for piecework. The Egyptians organized their people and their slaves to build their cities and pyramids. Construction of one pyramid, around 5000 BC. , required the labor of 100,000 people working for approximately 20 years. Planning, organizing, and controlling were essential elements of that and other feats, many of them long term. The ancient Egyptian Pharaohs had long-term planners and advisors, as did their contemporaries in China. China perfected military organization based on line and staff principles and used these same principles in the early Chinese dynasties. Confucius wrote parables that offered practical suggestions for public administration. In the Old Testament, Moses led a group of Jewish slaves out of Egypt and then organized them into a nation. Exodus, Chapter 18, describes how Moses â€Å"chose able men out of all Israel and made them heads over the people, and differentiated between rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties and rulers of tens. A system of judges also evolved, with only the hard cases coming to Moses. The city-states of Greece were commonwealths, with councils, courts, administrative officials, and boards of generals. Socrates talked about management as a skill separate from technical knowledge and experience. Plato wrote about specialization and proposed notions of a healthy republic. The Roman Empire is thought by many to have been so successful because of the Romans’ great ability to organize the military and conquer new lands. Those sent to govern the far-flung parts of the empire were effective administrators and were able to maintain relationships with leaders from other provinces and across the empire as a whole. There are numerous other ancient leaders who were skillful organizers, at least as indicated by their accomplishments, such as Hannibal, who shepherded an army across the Alps, and the first emperor of China, who built the Great Wall. Many of the practices employed today in leading, managing, and administering modern organizations have their origins in antiquity. Many concepts of authority developed in a religious context. One example is the Roman Catholic Church with its efficient formal organization and management techniques. The chain of command or path of authority, including the concept of specialization, was a most important contribution to management theory. Machiavelli also wrote about authority, stressing that it comes from the consent of the masses. However, the ideas Machiavelli expressed in The Prince are more often viewed as mainly concerned with leadership and communication. Much management theory has military origins, probably because efficiency and effectiveness are essential for success in warfare. The concepts of unity of command, line of command, staff advisors, and division of work all can be traced back at least to Alexander the Great, or even earlier, to Lao Tzu. The Industrial Revolution created a need for new thinking and the refinement of old thinking. Time and motion studies intensified the division of work, as did centralized production and research and development. Modern management theory prevails afterwards. The preceding historical review indicates that thinking about management and leadership is in large part situational and that practices evolved to deal with new situations that arose. It also indicates that yesterday’s principles and theories are surprisingly contemporary and surprisingly sophisticated. Some overlap occurs, of course, and some gaps. Today’s theorists have attempted to fill in the gaps and adapt the theories to current situations. Yet, like in other areas of thought, not much is of recent origin in the field of management theory. The Evolution of Management Changes in management practices occur as managers, theorists, researchers, and consultants seek new ways to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The driving force behind the evolution of management theory is the search for better ways to utilize organizational resources. Advances in management theory typically occur as managers and researchers find better ways to perform the principal management tasks: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling human and other organizational resources. In this paper, we will try to examine how management theory concerning appropriate management practices has evolved in modern times, and look at the central concerns that have guided its development. First, we look into the so-called classical management theories that emerged around the turn of the twentieth century. These include scientific management, which focuses on matching people and tasks to maximize efficiency; and administrative management, which focuses on identifying the principles that will lead to the creation of the most efficient system of organization and management. Next, we consider behavioral management theories, developed both before and after the Second World War, which focus on how managers should lead and control their workforces to increase performance. Then we discuss management science theory, which developed during the Second World War and which has become increasingly important as researchers have developed rigorous analytical and quantitative techniques to help managers measure and control organizational performance. Finally, we discuss business in the 1960s and 1970s and focus on the theories that were developed to help explain how the external environment affects the way organizations and managers operate. At the end of this paper, one will understand the ways in which management theory has evolved over time. One will also understand how economic, political, and cultural forces have affected the development of these theories and the ways in which managers and their organizations behave. Figure 1. 1 summarizes the chronology of the management theories that are discussed in this paper. Scientific Management Theory The evolution of modern management began in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, after the industrial revolution had swept through Europe, Canada, and the United States. In the new economic climate, managers of all types of organizations—political, educational, and economic—were increasingly trying to find better ways to satisfy customers’ needs. Many major economic, technical, and cultural changes were taking place at this time. The introduction of steam power and the development of sophisticated machinery and equipment changed the way in which goods were produced, particularly in the weaving and clothing industries. Small workshops run by skilled workers who produced hand-manufactured products (a system called crafts production) were being replaced by large factories in which sophisticated machines controlled by hundreds or even thousands of unskilled or semiskilled workers made products. Owners and managers of the new factories found themselves unprepared for the challenges accompanying the change from small-scale crafts production to large-scale mechanized manufacturing. Many of the managers and supervisors had only a technical orientation, and were unprepared for the social problems that occur when people work together in large groups (as in a factory or shop system). Managers began to search for new techniques to manage their organizations’ resources, and soon they began to focus on ways to increase the efficiency of the worker–task mix. Job specialization and division of labor The famous economist Adam Smith was one of the first to look at the effects of different manufacturing systems. 7 He compared the relative performance of two different manufacturing methods. The first was similar to crafts-style production, in which each worker was responsible for all of the 18 tasks involved in producing a pin. The other had each worker performing only 1 or a few of the 18 tasks that go into making a completed pin. Smith found that factories in which workers specialized in only 1 or a few tasks had greater performance than factories in which each worker performed all 18 pin-making tasks. In fact, Smith found that 10 workers specializing in a particular task could, between them, make 48 000 pins a day, whereas those workers who performed all the tasks could make only a few thousand at most. Smith reasoned that this difference in performance was due to the fact that the workers who specialized became much more skilled at their specific tasks, and, as a group, were thus able to produce a product faster than the group of workers who each had to perform many tasks. Smith concluded that increasing the level of job specialization— the process by which a division of labour occurs as different workers specialize in different tasks over time—increases efficiency and leads to higher organizational performance. Based on Adam Smith’s observations, early management practitioners and theorists focused on how managers should organize and control the work process to maximize the advantages of job specialization and the division of labour. F. W. Taylor and Scientific Management Frederick W. Taylor (1856–1915) is best known for defining the techniques of scientific management, the systematic study of relationships between people and tasks for the purpose of redesigning the work process to increase efficiency. Taylor believed that if the amount of time and effort that each worker expended to produce a unit of output (a finished good or service) could be reduced by increasing specialization and the division of labour, then the production process would become more efficient. Taylor believed that the way to create the most efficient division of labour could best be determined by means of scientific management techniques, rather than intuitive or informal rule-of-thumb knowledge. This decision ultimately resulted in problems. For example, some managers using scientific management obtained increases in performance, but rather than sharing performance gains with workers through bonuses as Taylor had advocated, they simply increased the amount of work that each worker was expected to do. Many workers experiencing the reorganized work system found that as their performance increased, managers required them to do more work for the same pay. Workers also learned that increases in performance often meant fewer jobs and a greater threat of layoffs, because fewer workers were needed. In addition, the specialized, simplified jobs were often monotonous and repetitive, and many workers became dissatisfied with their jobs. Scientific management brought many workers more hardship than gain, and left them with a distrust of managers who did not seem to care about their wellbeing. These dissatisfied workers resisted attempts to use the new scientific management techniques and at times even withheld their job knowledge from managers to protect their jobs and pay. Unable to inspire workers to accept the new scientific management techniques for performing tasks, some organizations increased the mechanization of the work process. For example, one reason for Henry Ford’s introduction of moving conveyor belts in his factory was the realization that when a conveyor belt controls the pace of work (instead of workers setting their own pace), workers can be pushed to perform at higher levels—levels that they may have thought were beyond their reach. Charlie Chaplin captured this aspect of mass production in one of the opening scenes of his famous movie, Modern Times (1936). In the film, Chaplin caricatured a new factory employee fighting to work at the machine imposed pace but losing the battle to the machine. Henry Ford also used the principles of scientific management to identify the tasks that each worker should perform on the production line and thus to determine the most effective way to create a division of labour to suit the needs of a mechanized production system. From a performance perspective, the combination of the two management practices— (1) achieving the right mix of worker–task specialization and (2) linking people and tasks by the speed of the production line—makes sense. It produces the huge savings in cost and huge increases in output that occur in large, organized work settings. For example, in 1908, managers at the Franklin Motor Company redesigned the work process using scientific management principles, and the output of cars increased from 100 cars a month to 45 cars a day; workers’ wages increased by only 90 percent, however. From other perspectives, though, scientific management practices raise many concerns. The definition of the workers’ rights not by the workers themselves but by the owners or managers as a result of the introduction of the new management practices raises an ethical issue, which we examine in this â€Å"Ethics in Action. † Fordism in Practice From 1908 to 1914, through trial and error, Henry Ford’s talented team of production managers pioneered the development of the moving conveyor belt and thus changed manufacturing practices forever. Although the technical aspects of the move to mass production were a dramatic financial success for Ford and for the millions of Americans who could now afford cars, for the workers who actually produced the cars, many human and social problems resulted. With simplification of the work process, workers grew to hate the monotony of the moving conveyor belt. By 1914, Ford’s car plants were experiencing huge employee turnover—often reaching levels as high as 300 or 400 percent per year as workers left because they could not handle the work-induced stress. 15 Henry Ford recognized these problems and made an announcement: From that point on, to motivate his workforce, he would reduce the length of the workday from nine hours to eight hours, and the company would double the basic wage from US$2. 50 to US$5. 00 per day. This was a dramatic increase, similar to an announcement today of an overnight doubling of the minimum wage. Ford became an internationally famous figure, and the word â€Å"Fordism† was coined for his new approach. Ford’s apparent generosity was matched, however, by an intense effort to control the resources—both human and material—with which his empire was built. He employed hundreds of inspectors to check up on employees, both inside and outside his factories. In the factory, supervision was close and confining. Employees were not allowed to leave their places at the production line, and they were not permitted to talk to one another. Their job was to concentrate fully on the task at hand. Few employees could adapt to this system, and they developed ways of talking out of the sides of their mouths, like ventriloquists, and invented a form of speech that became known as the â€Å"Ford Lisp. † Ford’s obsession with control brought him into greater and greater conflict with managers, who were often fired when they disagreed with him. As a result, many talented people left Ford to join his growing rivals. Outside the workplace, Ford went so far as to establish what he called the â€Å"Sociological Department† to check up on how his employees lived and the ways in which they spent their time. Inspectors from this department visited the homes of employees and investigated their habits and problems. Employees who exhibited behaviours contrary to Ford’s standards (for instance, if they drank too much or were always in debt) were likely to be fired. Clearly, Ford’s effort to control his employees led him and his managers to behave in ways that today would be considered unacceptable and unethical, and in the long run would impair an organization’s ability to prosper. Despite the problems of worker turnover, absenteeism, and discontent at Ford Motor Company, managers of the other car companies watched Ford reap huge gains in efficiency from the application of the new management principles. They believed that their companies would have to imitate Ford if they were to survive. They followed Taylor and used many of his followers as consultants to teach them how to adopt the techniques of scientific management. In addition, Taylor elaborated his principles in several books, including Shop Management (1903) and The detail how to apply the principles of scientific management to reorganize the work system. Taylor’s work has had an enduring effect on the management of production systems. Managers in every organization, whether it produces goods or services, now carefully analyze the basic tasks that must be performed and try to devise the work systems that will allow their organizations to operate most efficiently. The Gilbreths Two prominent followers of Taylor were Frank Gilbreth (1868–1924) and Lillian Gilbreth (1878–1972), who refined Taylor’s analysis of work movements and made many contributions to time-and-motion study. Their aims were to (1) break up into each of its component actions and analyze every individual action necessary to perform a particular task, (2) find better ways to perform each component action, and (3) reorganize each of the component actions so that the action as a whole could be performed more efficiently—at less cost of time and effort. The Gilbreths often filmed a worker performing a particular task and then separated the task actions, frame by frame, into their component movements. Their goal was to maximize the efficiency with which each individual task was performed so that gains across tasks would add up to enormous savings of time and effort. Their attempts to develop improved management principles were captured—at times quite humorously—in the movie Cheaper by the Dozen, which depicts how the Gilbreths (with their 12 children) tried to live their own lives according to these efficiency principles and apply them to daily actions such as shaving, cooking, and even raising a family. Eventually, the Gilbreths became increasingly interested in the study of fatigue. They studied how the physical characteristics of the workplace contribute to job stress that often leads to fatigue and thus poor performance. They isolated factors— such as lighting, heating, the colour of walls, and the design of tools and machines—that result in worker fatigue. Their pioneering studies paved the way for new advances in management theory. In workshops and factories, the work of the Gilbreths, Taylor, and many others had a major effect on the practice of management. In comparison with the old crafts system, jobs in the new system were more repetitive, boring, and monotonous as a result of the application of scientific management principles, and workers became increasingly dissatisfied. Frequently, the management of work settings became a game between workers and managers: Managers tried to initiate work practices to increase performance, and workers tried to hide the true potential efficiency of the work setting in order to protect their own well-being. Administrative management theory Side by side with scientific managers studying the person–task mix to increase efficiency, other researchers were focusing on administrative management, the study of how to create an organizational structure that leads to high efficiency and effectiveness. Organizational structure is the system of task and authority relationships that control how employees use resources to achieve the organization’s goals. Two of the most influential views regarding the creation of efficient systems of organizational administration were developed in Europe. Max Weber, a German professor of sociology, developed one theory. Henri Fayol, the French manager who developed a model of management introduced earlier, developed the other. The Theory of Bureaucracy Max Weber (1864–1920) wrote at the turn of the twentieth century, when Germany was undergoing its industrial revolution. To help Germany manage its growing industrial enterprises at a time when it was striving to become a world power, Weber developed the principles of bureaucracy—a formal system of organization and administration designed to ensure efficiency and effectiveness. A bureaucratic system of administration is based on five principles (summarized in Figure 1. 2). †¢ Principle 1: In a bureaucracy, a manager’s formal authority derives from the position he or she holds in the organization. Authority is the power to hold people accountable for their actions and to make decisions concerning the use of organizational resources. Authority gives managers the right to direct and control their subordinates’ behaviour to achieve organizational goals. In a bureaucratic system of administration, obedience is owed to a manager, not because of any personal qualities that he or she might possess— such as personality, wealth, or social status—but because the manager occupies a position that is associated with a certain level of authority and responsibility. †¢ Principle 2: In a bureaucracy, people should occupy positions because of their performance, not because of their social standing or personal contacts. This principle was not always followed in Weber’s time and is often ignored today. Some organizations and industries are still affected by social networks in which personal contacts and relations, not job-related skills, influence hiring and promotional decisions. †¢ Principle 3: The extent of each position’s formal authority and task responsibilities, and its relationship to other positions in an organization, should be clearly specified. When the tasks and authority associated with various positions in the organization are clearly specified, managers and workers know what is expected of them and what to expect from each other. Moreover, an organization can hold all its employees strictly accountable for their actions when each person is completely familiar with his or her responsibilities. †¢ Principle 4: So that authority can be exercised effectively in an organization, positions should be arranged hierarchically, so employees know whom to report to and who reports to them. Managers must create an organizational hierarchy of authority that makes it clear who reports to whom and to whom managers and workers should go if conflicts or problems arise. This principle is especially important in the armed forces, CSIS, RCMP, and other organizations that deal with sensitive issues involving possible major repercussions. It is vital that managers at high levels of the hierarchy be able to hold subordinates accountable for their actions. †¢ Principle 5: Managers must create a well-defined system of rules, standard operating procedures, and norms so that they can effectively control behaviour within an organization. Rules are formal written instructions that specify actions to be taken under different circumstances to achieve specific goals (for example, if A happens, do B). Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are specific sets of written instructions about how to perform a certain aspect of a task. A rule might state that at the end of the workday employees are to leave their machines in good order, and a set of SOPs then specifies exactly how they should do so, itemizing which machine parts must be oiled or replaced. Norms are unwritten, informal codes of conduct that prescribe how people should act in particular situations. For example, an organizational norm in a restaurant might be that waiters should help each other if time permits. Rules, SOPs, and norms provide behavioural guidelines that improve the performance of a bureaucratic system because they specify the best ways to accomplish organizational tasks. Companies such as McDonald’s and Wal-Mart have developed extensive rules and procedures to specify the types of behaviours that are required of their employees, such as, â€Å"Always greet the customer with a smile. † Weber believed that organizations that implement all five principles will establish a bureaucratic system that will improve organizational performance. The specification of positions and the use of rules and SOPs to regulate how tasks are performed make it easier for managers to organize and control the work of subordinates. Similarly, fair and equitable selection and promotion systems improve managers’ feelings of security, reduce stress, and encourage organizational members to act ethically and further promote the interests of the organization. If bureaucracies are not managed well, however, many problems can result. Sometimes, managers allow rules and SOPs—â€Å"bureaucratic red tape†Ã¢â‚¬â€to become so cumbersome that decision making becomes slow and inefficient and organizations are unable to change. When managers rely too much on rules to solve problems and not enough on their own skills and judgment, their behaviour becomes inflexible. A key challenge for managers is to use bureaucratic principles to benefit, rather than harm, an organization. Fayol’s Principles of Management Working at the same time as Weber but independently of him, Henri Fayol (1841–1925), the CEO of Comambault Mining, identified 14 principles (summarized in Table 2. ) that he believed to be essential to increasing the efficiency of the management process. Some of the principles that Fayol outlined have faded from contemporary management practices, but most have endured. The principles that Fayol and Weber set forth still provide a clear and appropriate set of guidelines that managers can use to create a work setting that makes efficient and effective use of organizational resources. These principles remain the bedrock of modern management theory; recent researchers have refined or developed them to suit modern conditions. For example, Weber’s and Fayol’s concerns for equity and for establishing appropriate links between performance and reward are central themes in contemporary theories of motivation and leadership. Behavioural Management Theory The behavioural management theorists writing in the first half of the twentieth century all espoused a theme that focused on how managers should personally behave in order to motivate employees and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed to the achievement of organizational goals. The â€Å"Management Insight† indicates how employees can become demoralized when managers do not treat their employees properly. Management Insight – How to Discourage Employees Catherine Robertson, owner of Vancouver-based Robertson Telecom Inc. , made headlines in February 2001 for her management policies. Robertson is a government contractor whose company operates Enquiry BC, which gives British Columbians toll-free telephone information and referral services about all provincial government programs. Female telephone operators at Robertson Telecom must wear skirts or dresses even though they never come in contact with the public. Not even dress pants are allowed. As Gillian Savage, a former employee, notes, â€Å"This isn’t a suggested thing, it’s an order: No pants. † Brad Roy, another former employee, claims a female Indo-Canadian employee was sent home to change when she arrived at work wearing a Punjabi suit (a long shirt over pants). The no-pants rule is not the only concern of current and former employees. Roy also said, â€Å"I saw some people being reprimanded for going to the washroom. While Robertson denied Roy’s allegation regarding washrooms, she did confirm that company policy included the no-pants rule, that employees were not allowed to bring their purses or other personal items to their desks, and that they were not allowed to drink coffee or bottled water at their desks. The company does not provide garbage cans for the employees. A g roup of current and former employees recently expressed concern with the number of rules Robertson has in place, and claimed that the rules have led to high turnover and poor morale. A current employee claims that many workers do not care whether they give out the right government phone numbers. Robertson said that she knew of no employees who were discontent, and was shocked that the policies had caused distress among employees. She defended the dress code as appropriate business attire. Robertson may have to make some adjustments in her management style. The cabinet minister responsible for Enquiry BC, Catherine MacGregor, ordered an investigation of the contractor after being contacted by The Vancouver Sun about the allegations. She noted that the skirts-only rule for women is not appropriate, and that, â€Å"All of our contractors are expected to fully comply with the Employment Standards Act, Workers Compensation rules and human rights legislation. † Additionally, Mary-Woo Sims, head of the BC Human Rights Commission, said dress codes can’t be based on gender. Thus, an employer can’t tell men they must wear pants (as Robertson does), but tell women they can’t. â€Å"On the face of it, it would appear to be gender discriminatory,† Sims said. The Work of Mary Parker Follett If F. W. Taylor is considered to be the father of management thought, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933) serves as its mother. 28 Much of her writing about management and about the way managers should behave toward workers was a response to her concern that Taylor was ignoring the human side of the organization. She pointed out that management often overlooks the multitude of ways in which employees can contribute to the organization when managers allow them to participate and exercise initiative in their everyday work lives. Taylor, for example, relied on time-and-motion experts to analyze workers’ jobs for them. Follett, in contrast, argued that because workers know the most about their jobs, they should be involved in job analysis and managers should allow them to participate in the work development process. Follett proposed that, â€Å"Authority should go with knowledge †¦ whether it is up the line or down. † In other words, if workers have the relevant knowledge, then workers, rather than managers, should be in control of the work process itself, and managers should behave as coaches and facilitators—not as monitors and supervisors. In making this statement, Follett anticipated the current interest in self-managed teams and empowerment. She also recognized the importance of having managers in different departments communicate directly with each other to speed decision making. She advocated what she called â€Å"cross-functioning†: members of different departments working together in cross-departmental teams to accomplish projects—an approach that is increasingly utilized today. Fayol also mentioned expertise and knowledge as important sources of managers’ authority, but Follett went further. She proposed that knowledge and expertise, and not managers’ formal authority deriving from their position in the hierarchy, should decide who would lead at any particular moment. She believed, as do many management theorists today, that power is fluid and should flow to the person who can best help the organization achieve its goals. Follett took a horizontal view of power and authority, in contrast to Fayol, who saw the formal line of authority and vertical chain of command as being most essential to effective management. Follett’s behavioural approach to management was very radical for its time. The Hawthorne Studies and Human Relations Probably because of its radical nature, Follett’s work was unappreciated by managers and researchers until quite recently. Instead, researchers continued to follow in the footsteps of Taylor and the Gilbreths. One focus was on how efficiency might be increased through improving various characteristics of the work setting, such as job specialization or the kinds of tools workers used. One series of studies was conducted from 1924 to 1932 at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This research, now known as the Hawthorne studies, began as an attempt to investigate how characteristics of the work setting—specifically the level of lighting or illumination—affect worker fatigue and performance. The researchers conducted an experiment in which they systematically measured worker productivity at various levels of illumination. The experiment produced some unexpected results. The researchers found that regardless of whether they raised or lowered the level of illumination, productivity increased. In fact, productivity began to fall only when the level of illumination dropped to the level of moonlight, a level at which presumably workers could no longer see well enough to do their work efficiently. The researchers found these results puzzling and invited a noted Harvard psychologist, Elton Mayo, to help them. Subsequently, it was found that many other factors also influence worker behaviour, and it was not clear what was actually influencing the Hawthorne workers’ behaviour. However, this particular effect— which became known as the Hawthorne effect—seemed to suggest that workers’ attitudes toward their managers affect the level of workers’ performance. In particular, the significant finding was that a manager’s behaviour or leadership approach can affect performance. This finding led many researchers to turn their attention to managerial behaviour and leadership. If supervisors could be trained to behave in ways that would elicit cooperative behaviour from their subordinates, then productivity could be increased. From this view emerged the human relations movement, which advocates that supervisors be behaviourally trained to manage subordinates in ways that elicit their cooperation and increase their productivity. The importance of behavioural or human relations training became even clearer to its supporters after another series of experiments—the bank wiring room experiments. In a study of workers making telephone switching equipment, researchers Elton Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger discovered that the workers, as a group, had deliberately adopted a norm of output restriction to protect their jobs. Workers who violated this informal production norm were subjected to sanctions by other group members. Those who violated group performance norms and performed above the norm were called â€Å"ratebusters†; those who performed below the norm were called â€Å"chiselers. † The experimenters concluded that both types of workers threatened the group as a whole. Ratebusters threatened group members because they revealed to managers how fast the work could be done. Chiselers were looked down on because they were not doing their share of the work. Work-group members disciplined both ratebusters and chiselers in order to create a pace of work that the workers (not the managers) thought was fair. Thus, a work group’s influence over output can be as great as the supervisors’ influence. Since the work group can influence the behavior of its members, some management theorists argue that supervisors should be trained to behave in ways that gain the goodwill and cooperation of workers so that supervisors, not workers, control the level of work-group performance. One of the main implications of the Hawthorne studies was that the behavior of managers and workers in the work setting is as important in explaining the level of performance as the technical aspects of the task. Managers must understand the workings of the informal organization, the system of behavioural rules and norms that emerge in a group, when they try to manage or change behaviour in organizations. Many studies have found that, as time passes, groups often develop elaborate procedures and norms that bond members together, allowing unified action either to cooperate with management in order to raise performance or to restrict output and thwart the attainment of organizational goals. The Hawthorne studies demonstrated the importance of understanding how the feelings, thoughts, and behaviour of work-group members and managers affect performance. It was becoming increasingly clear to researchers that understanding behaviour in organizations is a complex process that is critical to increasing performance. Indeed, the increasing interest in the area of management known as organizational behaviour, the study of the factors that have an impact on how individuals and groups respond to and act in organizations, dates from these early studies. Theory X and Theory Y Several studies after the Second World War revealed how assumptions about workers’ attitudes and behaviour affect managers’ behaviour. Perhaps the most influential approach was developed by Douglas McGregor. He proposed that two different sets of assumptions about work attitudes and behaviours dominate the way managers think and affect how they behave in organizations. McGregor named these two contrasting sets of assumptions Theory X and Theory Y (see Figure 1. 3). THEORY X According to the assumptions of Theory X, the average worker is lazy, dislikes work, and will try to do as little as possible. Moreover, workers have little ambition and wish to avoid responsibility. Thus, the manager’s task is to counteract workers’ natural tendencies to avoid work. To keep workers’ performance at a high level, the manager must supervise them closely and control their behaviour by means of â€Å"the carrot and stick†Ã¢â‚¬â€rewards and punishments. Managers who accept the assumptions of Theory X design and shape the work setting to maximize their control over workers’ behaviours and minimize workers’ control over the pace of work. These managers believe that workers must be made to do what is necessary for the success of the organization, and they focus on developing rules, SOPs, and a well-defined system of rewards and punishments to control behaviour. They see little point in giving workers autonomy to solve their own problems because they think that the workforce neither expects nor desires cooperation. Theory X managers see their role as to closely monitor workers to ensure that they contribute to the production process and do not threaten product quality. Henry Ford, who closely supervised and managed his workforce, fits McGregor’s description of a manager who holds Theory X assumptions. THEORY Y In contrast, Theory Y assumes that workers are not inherently lazy, do not naturally dislike work, and, if given the opportunity, will do what is good for the organization. According to Theory Y, the characteristics of the work setting determine whether workers consider work to be a source of satisfaction or punishment; and managers do not need to control workers’ behaviour closely in order to make them perform at a high level, because workers will exercise selfcontrol when they are committed to organizational goals. The implication of Theory Y, according to McGregor, is that â€Å"the limits of collaboration in the organizational setting are not limits of human nature but of management’s ingenuity in discovering how to realize the potential represented by its human resources. It is the manager’s task to create a work setting that encourages commitment to organizational goals and provides opportunities for workers to be imaginative and to exercise initiative and self-direction. When managers design the organizational setting to reflect the assumptions about attitudes and behaviour suggested by Theory Y, the characteristics of the o rganization are quite different from those of an organizational setting based on Theory X. Managers who believe that workers are motivated to help the organization reach its goals can decentralize authority and give more control over the job to workers, both as individuals and in groups. In this setting, individuals and groups are still accountable for their activities, but the manager’s role is not to control employees but to provide support and advice, to make sure employees have the resources they need to perform their jobs, and to evaluate them on their ability to help the organization meet its goals. Henri Fayol’s approach to administration more closely reflects the assumptions of Theory Y, rather than Theory X. Management Science Theory This theory focuses on the use of rigorous quantitative techniques to help managers make maximum use of organizational resources to produce goods and services. In essence, management science theory is a contemporary extension of scientific management, which, as developed by Taylor, also took a quantitative approach to measuring the worker–task mix in order to raise efficiency. There are many branches of management science; each of them deals with a specific set of concerns: Quantitative management utilizes mathematical techniques—such as linear and nonlinear programming, modelling, simulation, queuing theory, and chaos theory—to help managers decide, for example, how much inventory to hold at different times of the year, where to locate a new factory, and how best to invest an organization’s financial capital. Resources in the organizational environment include the raw materials and skilled people that an organization requires to produce goods and services, as well as the support of groups including customers who buy these goods and services and provide the organization with financial resources. One way of determining the relative success of an organization is to consider how effective its managers are at obtaining scarce and valuable resources. The importance of studying the environment became clear after the development of open-systems theory and contingency theory during the 1960s. The Open-Systems View One of the most influential views of how an organization is affected by its external environment was developed by Daniel Katz, Robert Kahn, and James Thompson in the 1960s. 38 These theorists viewed the organization as an open system— a system that takes in resources from its external environment and converts or transforms them into goods and services that are then sent back to that environment, where they are bought by customers (see Figure 1. 4). At the input stage, an organization acquires resources such as raw materials, money, and skilled workers to produce goods and services. Once the organization has gathered the necessary resources, conversion begins. At the conversion stage, the organization’s workforce, using appropriate tools, techniques, and machinery, transforms the inputs into outputs of finished goods and services such as cars, hamburgers, or flights to Hawaii. At the output stage, the organization releases finished goods and services to its external environment, where customers purchase and use them to satisfy their needs. The money the organization obtains from the sales of its outputs allows the organization to acquire more resources so that the cycle can begin again. The system just described is said to be â€Å"open† because the organization draws from and interacts with the external environment in order to survive; in other words, the organization is open to its environment. A closed system, in contrast, is a self-contained system that is not affected by changes that occur in its external environment. Organizations that operate as closed ystems, that ignore the external environment and that fail to acquire inputs, are likely to experience entropy, the tendency of a system to lose its ability to control itself and thus to dissolve and disintegrate. Management theorists can model the activities of most organizations by using the open-systems view. Manufacturing companies like Ford and General Electric, for example, buy inputs such as component parts, skilled and semiskilled labour, and robots and computer-controlled manufacturing equipment; then, at the conversion stage, they use their manufacturing skills to assemble inputs into outputs of cars and computers. As we discuss in later chapters, competition between organizations for resources is one of several major challenges to managing the organizational environment. Researchers using the open-systems view are also interested in how the various parts of a system work together to promote efficiency and effectiveness. Systems theorists like to argue that â€Å"the parts are more than the sum of the whole†; they mean that an organization performs at a higher level when its departments work together rather than separately. Synergy, the performance gains that result when individuals and departments coordinate their actions, is possible only in an organized system. The recent interest in using teams comprising people from different departments reflects systems theorists’ interest in designing organizational systems to create synergy and thus increase efficiency and effectiveness.